Skip to main content
WoMWeb of Medicine
SearchGraphHistory
Internal Medicine›Condition·Updated Apr 17, 2026·v1

Malaria

Malaria is a protozoan infection characterized by paroxysmal fevers and potential multi-organ failure. *P. falciparum* is the most dangerous species, while *P. vivax* and *P. ovale* require radical cure to prevent relapse. Diagnosis is via microscopy or RDT. Treatment is ACT-based for uncomplicated cases and IV artesunate for severe cases. G6PD screening is mandatory before using primaquine.

High Evidence200 references·617 words·3 min read·v1
Infectious DiseaseTropical MedicineParasitologyCritical Care

Quick Reference

RxDrug of choiceArtemether-lumefantrine (uncomplicated); IV Artesunate (severe)
AltAlternativesDihydroartemisinin-piperaquine; Quinine plus Doxycycline
⊘AvoidPrimaquine in G6PD deficiency; Artemether-lumefantrine in the first trimester of pregnancy (relative, ACTs now generally preferred if benefits outweigh risks)
DxTest of choiceThick and thin blood smears (Microscopy)
ScKey scoreBlantyre Coma Scale (pediatric); Glasgow Coma Scale (adult)
→When to referAny sign of severe malaria (altered mental status, respiratory distress, AKI, or parasitemia > 5%)
Fever in a traveler from an endemic area is malaria until proven otherwise; treat severe cases immediately with IV artesunate to reduce mortality.
Malaria is a life-threatening febrile illness caused by obligate intracellular protozoan parasites of the genus [[Plasmodium]], transmitted to humans via the bite of infected female [[Anopheles]] mosquitoes. While five species regularly infect humans—*P. falciparum*, *P.

Overview and Recommendations

Background

  • •Recognize malaria as a major global health threat, with approximately 250 million cases and over 600,000 deaths annually, disproportionately affecting children under five and pregnant women in sub-Saharan Africa.
  • •Identify the five primary human pathogens: (most virulent), P. vivax (common in Asia/Americas, forms dormant liver stages), P. ovale (also forms liver stages), P. malariae (72-hour cycle), and P. knowlesi (zoonotic, 24-hour cycle).
  • •Understand the life cycle involving the female mosquito vector, which injects sporozoites that first infect the liver (exo-erythrocytic cycle) before entering the bloodstream to infect red blood cells (erythrocytic cycle).
  • •Note the emergence of artemisinin partial resistance (ART-R), particularly in Southeast Asia and parts of Africa, characterized by delayed parasite clearance and mutations in the pfk13 gene.
  • •Consider host genetic factors that influence disease course, such as (risk of hemolysis with certain drugs), the Duffy-negative phenotype (historically protective against P. vivax), and sickle cell trait (protective against severe P. falciparum).

Evaluation

  • •Suspect malaria in any patient with an unexplained fever who has lived in or traveled to an endemic region within the last year, even if they took chemoprophylaxis.
  • •Ask about the pattern of fever paroxysms (chills, high fever, and sweating), though classic 48- or 72-hour cycles are often absent in the early stages or in non-immune individuals.
  • •Examine for signs of severe disease, including altered mental status (cerebral malaria), respiratory distress (acidotic breathing), jaundice, and spontaneous bleeding or petechiae.
  • •Order immediate parasitological testing with thick and thin blood smears; the thick smear is used for screening (sensitivity 50–100 parasites/µL), while the thin smear is used for species identification and quantification.
  • •Utilize Rapid Diagnostic Tests (RDTs) for Histidine-Rich Protein 2 (HRP2) or parasite Lactate Dehydrogenase (pLDH) when microscopy is unavailable, but be aware of false negatives in HRP2-deleted strains.
  • •Repeat blood smears every 6–12 hours for 48 hours if the initial test is negative but clinical suspicion remains high, as parasitemia can fluctuate significantly.
  • •Screen for red flags of severe malaria: Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) < 11, hemoglobin < 7 g/dL, serum creatinine > 3 mg/dL, or blood glucose < 40 mg/dL.
  • •Perform pulse oximetry on all patients; an SpO2 < 90% is a high-risk marker for mortality and indicates the need for urgent respiratory support.
  • •Evaluate for (CM) by assessing consciousness using the Blantyre Coma Scale in children or GCS in adults; CM is defined by a GCS < 11 persisting for >1 hour after a seizure.
  • •Obtain a complete blood count (CBC) to assess for thrombocytopenia and anemia, and a metabolic panel to monitor for acute kidney injury (MAKI) and hypoglycemia.
  • •Rule out other tropical febrile illnesses such as , , and , which often present with overlapping symptoms.
  • •Test for using a point-of-care biosensor before initiating radical cure therapy for P. vivax or P. ovale to prevent life-threatening hemolysis.

Management

  • •Administer intravenous (IV) 2.4 mg/kg at 0, 12, and 24 hours for all cases of severe malaria, regardless of the infecting species.
  • •Transition to a full 3-day course of oral Artemisinin-based Combination Therapy (ACT) once the patient with severe malaria can tolerate oral intake.
  • •Treat uncomplicated P. falciparum with oral Artemether-lumefantrine (20/120 mg tablets, weight-based dosing twice daily for 3 days) as the first-line regimen.
  • •Use Dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine as an alternative ACT in regions with documented resistance to artemether-lumefantrine.
  • •Provide radical cure for P. vivax and P. ovale by administering Primaquine 0.25–0.5 mg/kg daily for 14 days to eliminate latent liver hypnozoites.
  • •Ensure G6PD activity is >30% before giving primaquine; in patients with intermediate deficiency (30-70% activity), consider weekly primaquine (0.75 mg/kg) for 8 weeks under close supervision.
  • •Manage hypoglycemia aggressively with IV Dextrose (e.g., 10% dextrose 5 mL/kg in children) and monitor blood glucose every 4 hours, as quinine and the infection itself can cause profound drops.
  • •Control seizures with IV Diazepam 0.3 mg/kg or Midazolam 0.1 mg/kg; if seizures recur, escalate to Phenobarbital 20 mg/kg IV.
  • •Maintain fluid homeostasis using balanced crystalloids (Lactated Ringer's) at 3-4 mL/kg/hr, but avoid aggressive fluid boluses in cerebral malaria unless the patient is in shock to prevent cerebral edema.
  • •Monitor for delayed post-artesunate hemolysis (PADH), which can occur 1–3 weeks after treatment with IV artesunate, particularly in patients with high initial parasitemia.
  • •Avoid using artemisinin monotherapy, as this rapidly drives the development of drug resistance.
  • •Refer all pregnant women with malaria for specialist obstetric and infectious disease consultation, as they are at high risk for severe anemia and placental sequestration.
  • •Implement Seasonal Malaria Chemoprevention (SMC) with sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine plus amodiaquine (SPAQ) in children aged 3–59 months in high-transmission seasonal areas.
  • •Recommend the R21/Matrix-M or RTS,S/AS01 vaccine for children in endemic regions as part of a multi-tiered prevention strategy.
  • •Discharge patients only after they have completed at least 24 hours of oral therapy, are afebrile, have a declining parasite count, and can tolerate oral medications and fluids.

Board Review — High Yield

  • •Cerebral malaria — Defined by GCS < 11 or Blantyre ≤ 2 in the presence of P. falciparum parasitemia.
  • •Blackwater fever — Severe intravascular hemolysis leading to hemoglobinuria (dark urine), often associated with P. falciparum.
  • •Schüffner dots — Fine stippling seen in red blood cells infected with P. vivax or P. ovale.
  • •Banana-shaped gametocytes — Pathognomonic microscopic finding for P. falciparum.
  • •Hypnozoites — Dormant liver stages of P. vivax and P. ovale responsible for clinical relapses months later.
  • •Maurer clefts — Membranous sacs seen in P. falciparum-infected erythrocytes used for protein transport.
  • •Duffy Antigen — The receptor required for P. vivax entry; Duffy-negative individuals (common in West Africa) are largely resistant.
  • •Sequestration — P. falciparum cytoadherence to vascular endothelium via PfEMP1, causing microvascular obstruction.
  • •Recrudescence — Reappearance of parasitemia from the blood cycle (due to treatment failure), distinct from relapse (from liver).

Deep Dive — Evidence Details

References

  1. [1]

    Bonacolta AM, Li L, Del Campo J et al.. “Endosymbiotic Apicomplexans of Marine Holobionts: Microbial Parasites in a Warming Ocean.” Integrative and comparative biology (2026). PMID: 41665867 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  2. [2]

    Nguyễn ĐTD, Lê HG, Võ TC et al.. “Genetic polymorphism and natural selection of apical membrane antigen-1 in Plasmodium malariae isolated from Vietnam.” BMC infectious diseases (2026). PMID: 41776459 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification, Clinical Features and Variants
  3. [3]

    Voges K, Dias GR, Dupim EG et al.. “Anopheles (Kerteszia) cruzii, the main malaria vector in the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, is a complex of at least five cryptic species.” Communications biology (2026). PMID: 41741717 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  4. [4]

    Lawal MS, Hayashida K, Sugi T et al.. “Detection of novel Pegivirus C genome in an unexplained febrile outbreak, Gombe State, Nigeria, 2024 by enhanced mNGS approach.” International journal of infectious diseases : IJID : official publication of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (2026). PMID: 41667020 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification, History and Physical Examination
  5. [5]

    Rubio-Palis Y, Corredor-Medina C, Lenhart AE et al.. “Anopheles species complexes from Guyana and Venezuela malaria endemic areas using COI sequences.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41547760 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  6. [6]

    Rattanapitoon NK, Gordon CN, Charoenphon N et al.. “CXCL10high Microglia in Cerebral Malaria: Toward Translational Validation.” CNS neuroscience & therapeutics (2026). PMID: 41518083 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  7. [7]

    Daniyan MO, Singh H, Blatch GL. “Plasmodium knowlesi Heat Shock Protein 90s: In Silico Analysis Reveals Unique Druggable Structural Features.” International journal of molecular sciences (2025). PMID: 41465491 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  8. [8]

    Traoré H, Gnambani EJ, Hien DFS et al.. “Molecular characterization of potential Plasmodium-Blocking Serratia spp. bacteria in field-caught malaria mosquito in Burkina Faso.” Parasites & vectors (2025). PMID: 41423613 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  9. [9]

    Jote K, Gebrehiwot Y, Abebe A et al.. “Preliminary analysis of the conserved Plasmodium falciparum k13 gene in Arbaminch and Mirab Abaya, Ethiopia.” Malaria journal (2025). PMID: 41331631 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  10. [10]

    Hossain MS, Anjum MF, Rabbani MA et al.. “Bacillus altitudinis: a sustainable mosquito controlling biopesticide isolated from the rhizospheric soil of Nypa fruticans in mangrove forest.” BMC microbiology (2025). PMID: 41225312 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  11. [11]

    Pacheco MA, Miller EA, Harl J et al.. “Haemoproteus syrnii and other haemosporidians infecting owls from North America.” Malaria journal (2025). PMID: 41163075 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  12. [12]

    Dharmayanthi AB, Pratama R, Sánchez KL et al.. “The mitochondrial genome sequence of the Bornean orang-utan (Pongo pygmaeus) malaria parasite, Plasmodium pitheci.” Malaria journal (2025). PMID: 41063129 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  13. [13]

    Wandera HT, Nattoh G, Kiboi D et al.. “Investigation of prevalence and phylogenetic classification of Microsporidia MB and insecticide target site insensitivity resistance mutations in Anopheles gambiae s.l. and Anopheles funestus mosquitoes from Busia, Kenya.” BMC microbiology (2025). PMID: 41039202 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  14. [14]

    Pusawang K, Zhong D, Sriwichai P et al.. “Genetic variation in olfactory pathways associated with host-seeking behavior in natural populations of Anopheles minimus, a primary malaria vector in western Thailand.” Parasites & vectors (2025). PMID: 40993777 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  15. [15]

    Teixeira KS, Moreira HM, Roca TP et al.. “Reemergence of Oropouche in the Brazilian Amazon: A phylodynamic and phylogenetic analysis.” Travel medicine and infectious disease (2025). PMID: 40716624 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  16. [16]

    Bouyssou I, Golassa L, Vigan-Womas I et al.. “Genomic analysis of Plasmodium vivax field isolates circulating in sub-Saharan Africa.” Communications biology (2025). PMID: 40624365 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  17. [17]

    Usmani S, Gebhardt ME, Simubali L et al.. “Phylogenetic taxonomy of the Zambian Anopheles coustani group using a mitogenomics approach.” Malaria journal (2025). PMID: 40597261 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  18. [18]

    Kimita G, Collins J, Mutai B et al.. “Detection of zika virus disease caused by the Asian lineage of the zika virus at Kenya's Lamu island.” International journal of infectious diseases : IJID : official publication of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (2025). PMID: 40010630 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  19. [19]

    Postigo-Hidalgo I, Magassouba N, Krüger N et al.. “Elucidating Infectious Causes of Fever of Unknown Origin: A Laboratory-Based Observational Study of Patients with Suspected Ebola Virus Disease, Guinea, 2014.” The Journal of infectious diseases (2025). PMID: 39928049 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  20. [20]

    Bodawatta KH, Albrecht T, Krausová S et al.. “Cophylogeny, narrow host breadth and local conditions drive highly specialized bird-haemosporidian associations in West-Central African sky islands.” Proceedings. Biological sciences (2025). PMID: 39837510 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  21. [21]

    Manu GP, Bonney JHK, Bawa FK et al.. “Reduced COVID-19 severity in Africa: a systematic review of host genetic and immunological responses to SARS-CoV-2 infection.” Frontiers in immunology (2026). PMID: 41993206 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  22. [22]

    Wilczyńska W, Akilimali A, Korzeniewski K. “Human Filariasis in Africa (2000-2025): Changing epidemiology, uneven diagnostic progress, and persistent neglect.” PLoS neglected tropical diseases (2026). PMID: 41945600 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  23. [23]

    Sadhewa A, Panggalo LV, Nanine I et al.. “G6PD deficiency in Indonesia: a systematic review and update of prevalence and variant maps in the context of malaria elimination.” The Lancet regional health. Western Pacific (2026). PMID: 41953713 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  24. [24]

    Hassan U, Siddiqa A, Zhu Y et al.. “Prevalence of Plasmodium falciparum coinfection with Schistosoma haematobium and Schistosoma mansoni among children in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41935296 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Clinical Features and Variants, Diagnosis and Workup
  25. [25]

    Penjor K, Thapa B, Tsheten T et al.. “Estimating the burden of imported malaria in the Asia Pacific Region: A Systematic review and meta-analysis.” Journal of travel medicine (2026). PMID: 41934231 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  26. [26]

    Ramadan S, Talkhan A, Mansour A et al.. “Efficacy of ivermectin for malaria vector control: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41917922 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  27. [27]

    Corder RM, Puça MCSB, Prete CA et al.. “Reduced cytochrome P-450 (CYP) 2D6 activity and Plasmodium vivax malaria risk in Amazonians: A retrospective, population-based cohort study.” PLoS neglected tropical diseases (2026). PMID: 41894411 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Management
  28. [28]

    Diallo EM, Loum MA, Diallo OO et al.. “Model-Based Assessment of the Effects of Selective Free Healthcare and Differentiated Diagnosis on Malaria Burden in the Republic of Guinea.” Tropical medicine & international health : TM & IH (2026). PMID: 41994979 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Management
  29. [29]

    Peng PY, Xu L, Duan HY et al.. “One health perspectives on the epidemiological features and changing incidence of natural focus and vector-borne infectious diseases in China: An observational trend study.” One health (Amsterdam, Netherlands) (2026). PMID: 41993771 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  30. [30]

    Rahman MS, Shiddik MAB, Chowdhury AH. “Spatiotemporal patterns of climate-sensitive vector-borne diseases in Bangladesh: leveraging machine learning and spatial regression for intervention strategies.” BMC medicine (2026). PMID: 41975424 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  31. [31]

    Barrow A, Barrow S, Bah Y. “Integrated housing quality and insecticide-treated net use: propensity score methods for childhood anemia prevention in The Gambia.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41975408 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  32. [32]

    Rios-Teran CA, Tiedje KE, Bangre O et al.. “The dynamics of asymptomatic Plasmodium spp. infections following 10 years of malaria control interventions in Northern Sahelian Ghana.” PLoS neglected tropical diseases (2026). PMID: 41973755 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Diagnosis and Workup, Prevention and Screening
  33. [33]

    Smith SR, Nakibuuka V, Frick KD et al.. “Oxygen blenders for prevention of retinopathy of prematurity are highly cost-effective in Uganda.” Frontiers in medicine (2026). PMID: 41970396 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  34. [34]

    Zafindraibe NJ, Razafindrakoto AC, Zemey CB et al.. “Prevalence of malaria during pregnancy and coverage of intermittent preventive treatment with sulfadoxine-pyrimethamine in urban Amboasary-Sud, Southern Madagascar.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41965694 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Diagnosis and Workup
  35. [35]

    Addis GT, Addis MT, Mihret Y et al.. “"Referral patterns and associated factors among adult patients admitted with Severe Malaria at Shedeho Meket Primary Hospital, Northeast Ethiopia".” BMC infectious diseases (2026). PMID: 41963834 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Clinical Features and Variants
  36. [36]

    Jaramillo-Underwood A, Ogunniyi A, Zhou H et al.. “Risk factors and geospatial associations with Plasmodium falciparum malaria infection and IgG seroprevalence: Nigeria, 2018.” The Journal of infectious diseases (2026). PMID: 41960779 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  37. [37]

    Matamanda SH, Musakwa W, Dzomba A. “Malaria at the margins: climatic extremes, migration, and urban informal settlement risk in South Africa.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41952191 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  38. [38]

    Ilunga J, Mulenga-Cilundika P, Ekofo J et al.. “Barriers to integration of passive screening for sleeping sickness in Bibanga Health District, Democratic Republic of the Congo.” PLoS neglected tropical diseases (2026). PMID: 41950271 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  39. [39]

    Nguyen-Tien T, Tran V, Nguyen TM et al.. “Malaria situation in a highly endemic province in the Central Highlands of Vietnam: a retrospective analysis.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41947165 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  40. [40]

    Sekitoleko I, Komata R, Ssali I et al.. “Early-life infectious and nutritional exposures and cardiovascular risk in early adulthood in Uganda: protocol for a new round of data collection in the Entebbe Mother and Baby Study birth cohort at 21 years (EMaBS@21).” BMJ open (2026). PMID: 41946545 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  41. [41]

    Belay A, Semahegn A, Hailu BT et al.. “Integration of population-based surveys for neglected tropical diseases: A scoping review.” PLoS neglected tropical diseases (2026). PMID: 41941535 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  42. [42]

    Wynkoop HJ, Lintner-Rivera M, Taylor T et al.. “Malarial pneumonopathy in Malawian children with cerebral malaria.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41935286 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Clinical Features and Variants
  43. [43]

    Monteiro GM, Aïkpon RY, Dandonougbo C et al.. “Identification of malaria hotspots in southwestern Benin through spatial joint modelling of malaria incidence and vector abundance.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41935258 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  44. [44]

    Tadesse S, Korma W, Sherfa A et al.. “Fatal and non-fatal health outcomes of malaria among reproductive age women in Eastern Sub-Saharan Africa, from 1990 to 2023.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41933334 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  45. [45]

    Bennett A, Cotter C, Zarlinda I et al.. “Adapting reactive case detection strategies for high-risk populations to increase malaria infection detection in Aceh Province, Indonesia.” PLOS global public health (2026). PMID: 41931566 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Diagnosis and Workup
  46. [46]

    Odibo EO, Nmorsi OPG, Egwunyenga OA et al.. “Haematological responses in children under 5 years with malaria and soil-transmitted helminth coinfections in Delta State, Nigeria: a cross-sectional study.” Therapeutic advances in infectious disease (2026). PMID: 41929652 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  47. [47]

    Tsigie M, Baldor L, Feufack-Donfack LB et al.. “Genetic variation in the Duffy blood group among vivax malaria patients and its impact on disease susceptibility.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41928206 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  48. [48]

    Yitageasu G, Demoze L. “Spatial epidemiology of malaria by bed net utilization in 19 sub-Saharan African countries: a DHS-based study (2013-2023).” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41923227 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  49. [49]

    Ladan SM, Lima NP, Orimadegun AE et al.. “Prevalence and inequalities of missed opportunities for intermittent preventive therapy (IPTp) of malaria among pregnant women: an analysis of 2018 Nigeria DHS.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41918116 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  50. [50]

    Odongo W, Seffren V, Obiet K et al.. “Community health volunteers improve access to malaria case management in Siaya County, Kenya.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41917974 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Diagnosis and Workup
  51. [51]

    Stephenson KB, Greenfeld A, Ryan MG et al.. “Egg supplementation for 24 weeks does not improve linear growth or reduce small intestinal permeability in Sierra Leonean children with moderate wasting: a randomized, blinded, controlled trial.” The American journal of clinical nutrition (2025). PMID: 41193034 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: History and Physical Examination
  52. [52]

    Sié A, Ouattara M, Bountogo M et al.. “Mass Azithromycin Distribution and Cause-Specific Mortality among Children Ages 1-59 Months Old: A Secondary Analysis of a Cluster-Randomized Controlled Trial.” The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene (2026). PMID: 41252743 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: History and Physical Examination
  53. [53]

    Saady M, Ewaisha R, Azzazy HME. “Regional burden of undifferentiated fever and leading infectious etiologies of acute febrile illness in low- and middle-income countries: a meta-analysis.” International journal of infectious diseases : IJID : official publication of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (2025). PMID: 41161530 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: History and Physical Examination
  54. [54]

    Chitrapady S, Rajendran R, K H et al.. “Machine-learning-based artificial intelligence tools for the diagnosis of tropical fevers: a systematic review and meta-analysis protocol of diagnostic test accuracy.” BMJ open (2025). PMID: 40854843 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: History and Physical Examination
  55. [55]

    Anselmo A, D'Ugo E, Corrent L et al.. “A case of Human Pegivirus acute febrile infection diagnosed by Next Generation Sequencing (NGS).” International journal of infectious diseases : IJID : official publication of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (2026). PMID: 41638349 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: History and Physical Examination
  56. [56]

    Sous M, Boti M, Mose B et al.. “Reversible paralysis in pregnancy, thinking beyond malaria: a case report.” BMC infectious diseases (2025). PMID: 41286642 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: History and Physical Examination
  57. [57]

    Srirama S, Sihag KK, Chandrasekaran AK et al.. “Acute undifferentiated febrile illness in a traveler returning from Burkina Faso, West Africa to Puducherry, India- a case report.” BMC infectious diseases (2025). PMID: 40646441 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: History and Physical Examination
  58. [58]

    Batra P, Kaushik D, Rasane P et al.. “Early-Life Protein Nutrition and Enzymatic Regulation: Mechanistic Pathways Linking Growth Faltering, Stunting, and Obesity.” FASEB journal : official publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology (2026). PMID: 41933918 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: History and Physical Examination
  59. [59]

    Abraham P, Lubis IND, Novivanti R et al.. “The household economic burden of human-only and zoonotic malaria, compared to other causes of acute febrile illness in Indonesia.” BMJ global health (2026). PMID: 41887663 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination, Diagnosis and Workup
  60. [60]

    Sambe BS, Diagne A, Diatta AS et al.. “Malaria misdiagnosis among febrile patients in Senegal: implications for the underestimation of Plasmodium species diversity and malaria burden.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41794727 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination
  61. [61]

    Moutombi Ditombi BC, Fritz M, Kombila Koumavor CA et al.. “Molecular evidence of co-circulation of different dengue virus serotypes associated with malaria co-infection among febrile children in Libreville, Gabon.” International journal of infectious diseases : IJID : official publication of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (2026). PMID: 41722758 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination
  62. [62]

    Lo TQ, Edu-Quansah EP, Dogba J et al.. “Acute febrile illness surveillance using TaqMan Array Cards in two urban health facilities, Monrovia, Liberia, December 2018-March 2020.” PLoS neglected tropical diseases (2026). PMID: 41662363 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination
  63. [63]

    Arsuaga M, Oliveira-Souto I, Sánchez-Montalvá A et al.. “Travel health risks in adults over 60 years of age: insights from the +Redivi network in Spain.” Journal of travel medicine (2026). PMID: 41614979 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination
  64. [64]

    Merritt C, Vincenz C, Dolo Z et al.. “Association between placental malaria, postnatal linear growth, and body mass index in the Dogon Longitudinal Study, Mali.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41501807 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination
  65. [65]

    Chitrapady S, Rajendran R, Haritha K et al.. “Development and evaluation of a diagnostic aiding tool for differentiating tropical fevers using artificial intelligence approach: a study protocol from tertiary care hospital in South India.” BMJ open (2026). PMID: 41490850 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination
  66. [66]

    Legesse F, Berhane N. “Prevalence of malaria and diagnostic performance of malaria rapid diagnostic tests compared to microscopy among febrile patients at Pawe General Hospital, Northwest Ethiopia.” BMC infectious diseases (2025). PMID: 41449340 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination
  67. [67]

    Remppis J, Weitz R, Aasi M et al.. “Child health in international travel: A German airport survey.” Travel medicine and infectious disease (2026). PMID: 41386402 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination
  68. [68]

    Lambebo IH, Eba K, Tucho GT. “Association between climatic conditions and infectious diseases: implications for Central Ethiopia region.” BMC infectious diseases (2025). PMID: 41331557 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination
  69. [69]

    Hedible KGB, Sawadogo AG, Zair Z et al.. “Care management and determinants of day 14 mortality in severely ill children aged under 5 years subsequent to hypoxaemia diagnosed using routine pulse oximetry in primary care: evidence from the AIRE project.” BMJ global health (2025). PMID: 41309154 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination
  70. [70]

    Tariq H, Alamgir A, Punar Z et al.. “Climate variability and infectious disease burden in Coastal Sindh, Pakistan: A trend analysis (2019-2022).” International journal of infectious diseases : IJID : official publication of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (2026). PMID: 41285193 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination
  71. [71]

    Kim JH, Chebu P, Fayomade R et al.. “Multi-Pathogen Surveillance of Acute Febrile Illness in Nigeria Using TaqMan Array Cards: Implementation Successes and Lessons Learned From the SAFIAN Study.” Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America (2025). PMID: 41263690 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination
  72. [72]

    Quiner CA, Ephraim AZ, Kwaghe V et al.. “Epidemiology of Plasmodium spp. Detection Among Acute Febrile Illness Patients in Two Regions of Nigeria.” Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America (2025). PMID: 41263689 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination
  73. [73]

    Erameh C, Courtney LP, Kwaghe V et al.. “High Burden of Coinfections With Epidemic-Prone Pathogens Among Febrile Patients in Nigeria: A Multi-Pathogen Surveillance Study.” Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America (2025). PMID: 41263686 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination
  74. [74]

    Hedrich N, Lovey T, Bernhard J et al.. “Real-time illness monitoring in travellers: an international, prospective, digital surveillance study.” Travel medicine and infectious disease (2025). PMID: 41260318 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination
  75. [75]

    Tiberti N, Bertoli G, Mazzi C et al.. “Profiling of circulating immune factors and host-derived extracellular vesicles in response to bacterial or malaria acute fever.” Infection (2026). PMID: 41258581 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination
  76. [76]

    Abubakr M, Mohamed NS, Sami H et al.. “Epidemiological trends of malaria in Sennar State, Sudan.” Malaria journal (2025). PMID: 41214714 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination
  77. [77]

    Kaba S, Diallo MDD, Winner MBF. “Influence of community norms on caregivers' early care-seeking behaviour for under-5 children with fever in Guinea, a secondary analysis study.” Malaria journal (2025). PMID: 41084008 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination
  78. [78]

    Colubri A, Willing N, Grozdani A et al.. “Travel Healthy, a mobile app for participatory surveillance among U.S. international travelers.” Travel medicine and infectious disease (2025). PMID: 41083032 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination
  79. [79]

    Akanbi DO, Abaye BB, Averhoff F et al.. “Detection of dengue, malaria, and additional causes of acute febrile illness: The need for expanded testing, Bayelsa State, Nigeria.” PLoS neglected tropical diseases (2025). PMID: 41071829 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination
  80. [80]

    Amoadu M, Alhassan A, Odoom E. “Delay in malaria care-seeking for children under five in Africa: a systematic review.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41845404 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Clinical Features and Variants
  81. [81]

    Meena P, Singla V, Deshpande A et al.. “Clinical characteristics and outcome of malaria-associated acute kidney injury in adult patients: a systematic review and meta analysis.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41620769 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Clinical Features and Variants
  82. [82]

    Okek EJ, Jehopio J, Sande OJ et al.. “Progression from uncomplicated to severe malaria among children in settings receiving different combinations of malaria control interventions in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis.” Tropical medicine and health (2026). PMID: 41862968 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Clinical Features and Variants
  83. [83]

    Riggle BA, Chamzas A, Gopalakrishnan M et al.. “Safety, tolerability, and pharmacokinetics of 6-diazo-5-oxo-L-norleucine (DON) in Malawian adults with and without malaria: a Phase I dose-escalation clinical trial.” The Journal of infectious diseases (2026). PMID: 41748157 ↗

    L2bTRIAL_NONRANDOMCited in: Clinical Features and Variants
  84. [84]

    Animut A, Bekana T, Siraj SZ et al.. “Treatment outcome and associated factors of severe malaria among admitted children in the Gambella Region, Southwest Ethiopia: a retrospective study design.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41808107 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Clinical Features and Variants, Diagnosis and Workup, Management
  85. [85]

    Noor M, Junaid M, Furqan A. “Burden of Plasmodium vivax and Plasmodium falciparum Malaria: clinical insights from a prospective study in Jacobabad, Sindh, Pakistan.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41680751 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Clinical Features and Variants
  86. [86]

    Scherer N, Nemerimana M, Nanyunja C et al.. “Early childhood intervention for children at risk of developmental disabilities and their caregivers in Rwanda: study protocol for the PDC/Baby Ubuntu cluster randomised trial.” Trials (2026). PMID: 41862972 ↗

    L2bTRIAL_NONRANDOMCited in: Clinical Features and Variants, Diagnosis and Workup, Supportive Care and Complication Management
  87. [87]

    Wakai T, Chinedu S, Afolabi I. “Heme oxygenase-1 and malaria pathogenesis.” Frontiers in immunology (2026). PMID: 41836435 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Clinical Features and Variants
  88. [88]

    Toure M, Keita S, Keita B et al.. “Trends in malaria indicators in urban and peri-urban areas of Bamako: a scoping review protocol.” Systematic reviews (2026). PMID: 41736077 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Clinical Features and Variants
  89. [89]

    Cardona F, Héritier L, Cortaredona S et al.. “Assessment of Long-Term Sequelae After Severe Malaria: A Retrospective Study.” Pathogens (Basel, Switzerland) (2026). PMID: 41754407 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Clinical Features and Variants, Management
  90. [90]

    Okullo AE, Ouma S, John CC et al.. “Prevalence and risk factors of gross neurologic deficits in children after severe malaria: A systematic review and meta-analysis.” PloS one (2026). PMID: 41843569 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Clinical Features and Variants
  91. [91]

    Qi YP, Crider KS, Gutman J et al.. “Folic acid supplementation and malaria susceptibility and severity among people taking antifolate antimalarial drugs in endemic areas.” The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2026). PMID: 41705996 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Clinical Features and Variants, Prevention and Screening
  92. [92]

    Sastre-Martínez AD, Gutiérrez MAG, Vallejo-Serna RA et al.. “Cerebral malaria caused by Plasmodium vivax in an afrodescendant adult in Colombia: case report.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41851764 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Clinical Features and Variants, Management, Supportive Care and Complication Management
  93. [93]

    Olwit G, Gutanamuka TB, Chris-Uchendu HC et al.. “Malaria-Associated Acute Kidney Injury: A Key Driver of Mortality in Endemic Regions.” International journal of nephrology and renovascular disease (2026). PMID: 41938719 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Clinical Features and Variants
  94. [94]

    Nuin NA, Rajahram GS, Barber BE et al.. “G6PD variants but not Filipino beta-thalassemia are associated with reduced risk of Plasmodium knowlesi infection in Sabah, Malaysia.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41987254 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Clinical Features and Variants, Diagnosis and Workup
  95. [95]

    Lenz T, Sirel M, Hoppe H et al.. “Epigenetics and chromatin structure regulate var2csa expression and the placental-binding phenotype in Plasmodium falciparum.” eLife (2026). PMID: 41984626 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Clinical Features and Variants
  96. [96]

    Klein SG, Mota KCP, Borges BC et al.. “Anti-GPI scFv as a Promising Tool for Intervention Against Cerebral Malaria in Mice.” International journal of molecular sciences (2026). PMID: 41977140 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Clinical Features and Variants
  97. [97]

    Ravishankar K, Mace KE, Koiso S et al.. “Mapping Hospitals That Treat Severe Malaria Cases in the United States: Evidence to Inform Health Systems Strategies for Intravenous Artesunate Supply.” Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America (2026). PMID: 41955078 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Clinical Features and Variants
  98. [98]

    Caiazzo R, Panero B, Carello M et al.. “Pediatric malaria in a non-endemic European setting: clinical patterns, laboratory markers, and the ambiguous role of immunity.” Infection (2026). PMID: 41935227 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Clinical Features and Variants, Management
  99. [99]

    Kasprowicz D, Korzeniewski K, Wilczyńska W. “Clinical Characteristics and Outcomes of Hospitalized Malaria Patients in Rural Madagascar.” Journal of clinical medicine (2026). PMID: 41899312 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Clinical Features and Variants, Supportive Care and Complication Management
  100. [100]

    Bendezu J, Larrauri-Aguilar P, Bautista R et al.. “Phenotypic and genotypic characterization of Plasmodium falciparum field isolates lacking pfhrp2 gene.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41840576 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Clinical Features and Variants
  101. [101]

    Figueroa-Downing D, Kelly SL, Cavelan A et al.. “Timing of the fourth dose of RTS,S/AS01 malaria vaccine in perennial settings: a modelling study.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41827013 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Clinical Features and Variants
  102. [102]

    Chelangat SC, Nakawuki A, Orech S et al.. “Facilitators and barriers to adherence to severe malaria treatment guidelines in children at Mbale Regional Referral Hospital, Uganda: a health workers' perspective.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41749217 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Clinical Features and Variants
  103. [103]

    Diffendall G, Millot P, Chen P et al.. “Longitudinal plasma metabolomics reveals a role for taurine in asymptomatic malaria and seasonal persistence.” Nature microbiology (2026). PMID: 41708949 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Clinical Features and Variants
  104. [104]

    Boopathi PA, Singh S, Roy P et al.. “Comparative clinical transcriptome of pir genes in severe Plasmodium vivax malaria.” PLoS neglected tropical diseases (2026). PMID: 41706749 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Clinical Features and Variants
  105. [105]

    Kanyamukenge DB, Maseko T, Khote FL et al.. “Young children with severe malaria in the Kapolowe health zone: an analysis of their parents' health-seeking behaviors and the challenges they face.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41680770 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Clinical Features and Variants
  106. [106]

    Unnikrishnan G, Singh A. “Diagnostic Accuracy of Point-of-Care Devices for Glucose-6-Phosphate Dehydrogenase Deficiency Detection Among Malaria Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” Tropical medicine & international health : TM & IH (2026). PMID: 41774916 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Diagnosis and Workup
  107. [107]

    Zambo Bitye BM, Mbianda Nana CM, Kwanou Tchakounte BD et al.. “cTfh Cell Activation and Changes in BTLA and LAG-3 Expression Differentially Associate With Poor Pregnancy Outcome in Plasmodium falciparum Placental Malaria.” Journal of immunology research (2026). PMID: 41983955 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup
  108. [108]

    Pavesi A, Ciccarone A, Logiudice J et al.. “Blood Smear Examination Matters: an Incidental Case of Tick-Borne Relapsing Fever in a Traveller Returning from Senegal.” Travel medicine and infectious disease (2026). PMID: 41974313 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup
  109. [109]

    Chen W, Ochomo E, Muok E et al.. “Modeling and Laboratory Experiments to Assess Detection of Plasmodium falciparum in Wastewater: Insights for Wastewater-Based Surveillance of Malaria.” Environmental science & technology (2026). PMID: 41964709 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup
  110. [110]

    Cavros I, Abanyie F, Kamara ARY et al.. “Efficacy and safety of artemether-lumefantrine (AL) and artesunate-amodiaquine (ASAQ) for the treatment of uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria among children 6-59 months in three sentinel sites of Sierra Leone, 2021-2022.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41957831 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup
  111. [111]

    Valkiūnas G, Iezhova TA, Chagas CRF et al.. “New experimental insights into the biology of avian malaria parasites.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41952185 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup
  112. [112]

    Adeogun AO, Adetunji O, Babalola AS et al.. “Spatial eco-climatic gradients drive adaptive 2La chromosomal inversion polymorphism in Anopheles coluzzii, a major malaria vector in Nigeria.” International journal of health geographics (2026). PMID: 41943093 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup
  113. [113]

    Cuamba I, Santano R, Grau-Pujol B et al.. “Helminth coinfections mitigate clinical, parasitological, and immune outcomes in Mozambican children with malaria.” BMC medicine (2026). PMID: 41918093 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup
  114. [114]

    Shaba-Santu A, Moonga L, Ogata S et al.. “Prevalence and factors associated with malaria amongst under-five children in Senga Hill District, Northern Province, Zambia, a community-based cross-sectional study.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41917959 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup
  115. [115]

    Maulana T, Marthoenis M, Almira CS et al.. “Socio-demographic characteristics and parasite density patterns of Plasmodium knowlesi Malaria in Aceh, Indonesia: insights from hospital-based data.” Infection (2026). PMID: 41913029 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup
  116. [116]

    Ahogni I, Avanon H, Hueha C et al.. “The accuracy of recording malaria rapid diagnostic test (RDT) results in public health facilities in Benin; results from the MaCRA project.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41904563 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup
  117. [117]

    Jima B, Wondale B, Eligo N et al.. “Microscopy underestimates submicroscopic malaria infections in Ethiopia's southern rift valley: a community-based cross-sectional study.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41904559 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup
  118. [118]

    Li F, Xu O, Zhou J et al.. “Functional characterization of AsOBP21f, an odorant-binding protein involved in human odor detection in the malaria vector Anopheles sinensis.” Parasites & vectors (2026). PMID: 41872964 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup
  119. [119]

    Carey-Ewend K, Shepard H, Yang G et al.. “Frequent Plasmodium ovale recurrence in coastal Tanzania.” Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America (2026). PMID: 41862423 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup
  120. [120]

    Matulis GA, Smith HP, Hall G et al.. “Characterization of arbovirus infections in patients within Haiti by screening discarded malaria rapid diagnostic test cassettes.” PLoS neglected tropical diseases (2026). PMID: 41860982 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup
  121. [121]

    Boadu S, Axame WK, Abanga WA et al.. “Evaluation of malaria rapid diagnostic test kit performance in a high-transmission setting: a facility-based cross-sectional study in rural Ghana.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41857588 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup
  122. [122]

    Pippione AC, Villella N, Fornaseri F et al.. “Structure-based design of new pyrazole inhibitors targeting Plasmodium falciparum dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (PfDHODH).” European journal of medicinal chemistry (2026). PMID: 41855879 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup, Management, Prevention and Screening
  123. [123]

    Fenomanana J, Ravoavy A, Rakotoarisoa M et al.. “Field and laboratory evaluation of Abbott-Bioline™ Malaria Ag Pf/Pv RDT performance in a high-transmission setting: contrasting results with a low-endemic area.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41851713 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup
  124. [124]

    Sarma K, Sarma H, Deka J. “Advancing global malaria control: therapeutic strategies, drug discovery, and formulation innovations.” Infection (2026). PMID: 41851575 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Diagnosis and Workup
  125. [125]

    Duncombe CJ, Poehlman AS, Conrad EN et al.. “Host biological sex directs immune control of the Plasmodium parasite liver stage in mice.” Frontiers in immunology (2026). PMID: 41846936 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup
  126. [126]

    Mmweteni RE, Philbert AB, Mkandawile G et al.. “Detection of supergroup B Wolbachia strains and their co-infection with Plasmodium falciparum in wild Anopheles funestus in southeastern Tanzania: implications for malaria control.” Parasites & vectors (2026). PMID: 41845520 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup
  127. [127]

    Pfaffendorf C, Dejon-Agobé JC, Edoa JR et al.. “Population pharmacokinetics of fosmidomycin and clindamycin in combination with artesunate for uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria in Gabonese children and adults.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41857641 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Management
  128. [128]

    Xie K, Otuko R, Marathe A et al.. “Cost and cost-effectiveness of ivermectin mass drug administration for malaria control in Kwale county, Kenya: a modelling analysis of a cluster-randomised trial.” The Lancet. Global health (2026). PMID: 41713445 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Management, Prevention and Screening
  129. [129]

    Ubalde J, Bradshaw C, Fatima SH et al.. “Systematic review of climate change interventions for improving child health.” BMJ paediatrics open (2026). PMID: 41856671 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Management
  130. [130]

    Habarugira F, Batamuriza J, Ndahimana R et al.. “The Global Landscape of Plasmodium falciparum Drug Resistance Markers, 2005-2025: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” Pathogens (Basel, Switzerland) (2026). PMID: 41754431 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Management
  131. [131]

    Bundi CK, Muñoz O, Kibwana E et al.. “B and T cell responses to pre-erythrocytic R21/Matrix-M and blood-stage RH5.1/Matrix-M malaria vaccines in endemic settings.” Frontiers in immunology (2026). PMID: 41846927 ↗

    L2bTRIAL_NONRANDOMCited in: Management, Prevention and Screening
  132. [132]

    Zhang X, Milligan P, Cheung YB. “Flexible and Interpretable Modeling of Overlapping Exposure Risks in Self-Controlled Case Series Analysis.” Statistics in medicine (2026). PMID: 41979390 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Management, Prevention and Screening
  133. [133]

    Moriarty LF, Betoulle MM, Troell P et al.. “Antimalarial efficacy monitoring after nearly 20 years of artemisinin-based combination therapy in Africa: recalibrating guidance.” Trends in parasitology (2026). PMID: 41933996 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Management
  134. [134]

    Niyomwungere D, Sinarinzi P, Caspar E et al.. “Border Region Surveillance of Malaria Drug Resistance, Northern Burundi, 2023-2024.” Emerging infectious diseases (2026). PMID: 41927306 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Management
  135. [135]

    Ariefta NR, Beteck RM, Legoabe LJ et al.. “Synthetic quinolone-tethered aminoguanidine derivatives exhibit potent antiplasmodial activity.” International journal of antimicrobial agents (2026). PMID: 41921671 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Management
  136. [136]

    Opperman D, Rabie T, Maré M et al.. “Protein Arginine Methyltransferase Inhibitors Target Multiple Stages of Plasmodium falciparum Parasites In Vitro.” ACS infectious diseases (2026). PMID: 41914674 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Management
  137. [137]

    Wu L, Vllasaliu D, Mabayoje DA et al.. “Nanoscaffold-based 3D human liver spheroids for predictive hepatotoxicity screening of antimalarial compounds from the global health priority box.” Parasites & vectors (2026). PMID: 41872940 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Management
  138. [138]

    Rosenthal M, Goldberg DE. “4-Aminoquinolines block heme iron reactivity and interfere with artemisinin action.” eLife (2026). PMID: 41870038 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Management
  139. [139]

    Morgan CJ, Scoullar MJL, Melepia PU et al.. “Women's perspectives on health service integration for multi-morbidity in pregnancy, childbirth, and postpartum in a high-burden setting.” Med (New York, N.Y.) (2026). PMID: 41861824 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Management
  140. [140]

    Aamir M, Rezaee K, Anari MS. “Intelligent in-silico prioritization of antimalarial peptide candidates under explicit physicochemical windows via de novo CTCM-Neo generation and conformal-gated calibrated classification.” Frontiers in cellular and infection microbiology (2026). PMID: 41859462 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Management
  141. [141]

    Khilari A, Sharma S, Bajpai M et al.. “Targeted Genomic Surveillance Unveils Genetic Variations Linked to Regional Malaria Drug Resistance Dynamics in India.” Open forum infectious diseases (2026). PMID: 41846600 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Management
  142. [142]

    Milić M, Obi P, Vanderwal CD et al.. “Polypharmacology in malaria treatment: single drugs, multiple mechanisms, greater impact.” Trends in parasitology (2026). PMID: 41846229 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Management
  143. [143]

    Gonçalves AF, Lima-Pinheiro A, Sampaio-Marques B et al.. “Profiling 26S Proteasome Activity of Plasmodium falciparum Monitored by a Live-Cell Assay.” International journal of molecular sciences (2026). PMID: 41828333 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Management
  144. [144]

    Salazar YEAR, Rezende AM, Puça MCSB et al.. “Emergence of artemisinin-based combination therapy resistance markers in Plasmodium falciparum from the Brazilian tri-border region of the Guiana Shield.” Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy (2026). PMID: 41817181 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Management
  145. [145]

    Moritz A, Hirn-Derksen B, Klein S et al.. “Integrative preclinical strategy for pharmacokinetic profiling and candidate selection of 3-hydroxypropanamidines: a promising antimalarial class.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41808149 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Management
  146. [146]

    Putaporntip C, Somkuna J, Rojrung R et al.. “Contrasting evolutionary trajectories of pyrimethamine resistance in human and zoonotic malaria parasites.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41808095 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Management
  147. [147]

    Vandy A, Turay BA, Lahai M et al.. “Herbal product use in urban slum communities of Freetown, Sierra Leone: Consumption patterns, predictors, and ethnomedicinal applications.” Journal of ethnobiology and ethnomedicine (2026). PMID: 41794856 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Management
  148. [148]

    Abadia ACM, Diedrich D, Vieira LC et al.. “In Vivo Antimalarial Activity and Toxicological Profile of LAFIS10, a Piperazine Derivative From Ursolic Acid.” Tropical medicine & international health : TM & IH (2026). PMID: 41788057 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Management
  149. [149]

    Alemayehu G, Awoke A, Kassa Z. “Ethnobotanical documentation and conservation assessment of medicinal plants used by the Somali community in Karamara forest patches, Eastern Ethiopia.” Journal of ethnobiology and ethnomedicine (2026). PMID: 41787442 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Management
  150. [150]

    Garg RK, Pandey S, Mahdi RA et al.. “Spectrum of movement disorders in Malaria: a systematic review of case reports, case series, and cohort studies.” Neurological sciences : official journal of the Italian Neurological Society and of the Italian Society of Clinical Neurophysiology (2025). PMID: 40537708 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  151. [151]

    Sankar J, Das RR, Banothu KK. “Fluid resuscitation in children with severe infection and septic shock: a systematic review and meta-analysis.” European journal of pediatrics (2024). PMID: 38916738 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  152. [152]

    Casey RM, Najjengo MS, Lubega I et al.. “Adverse events following immunization (AEFI) with fractional one-fifth and one-half doses of yellow fever vaccine compared to full dose in children 9-23 months old in Uganda, 2019-2020 - Preliminary report.” Vaccine (2024). PMID: 39153293 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  153. [153]

    Birbeck GL, Seydel KB, Mwanza S et al.. “Acetaminophen and Ibuprofen in Pediatric Central Nervous System Malaria: A Randomized Clinical Trial.” JAMA neurology (2024). PMID: 38857015 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  154. [154]

    Taylor SM, Korwa S, Wu A et al.. “Monthly sulfadoxine/pyrimethamine-amodiaquine or dihydroartemisinin-piperaquine as malaria chemoprevention in young Kenyan children with sickle cell anemia: A randomized controlled trial.” PLoS medicine (2022). PMID: 36215323 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  155. [155]

    Haine V, Oneko M, Debois M et al.. “Safety of RTS,S/AS01E malaria vaccine up to 1 year after the third dose in Ghana, Kenya, and Malawi (EPI-MAL-003): a phase 4 cohort event monitoring study.” The Lancet. Global health (2025). PMID: 40288377 ↗

    L2bTRIAL_NONRANDOMCited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  156. [156]

    Tembo D, Mwanza S, Mwaba C et al.. “Risk factors for acute kidney injury at presentation among children with CNS malaria: a case control study.” Malaria journal (2022). PMID: 36316704 ↗

    L2bTRIAL_NONRANDOMCited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  157. [157]

    Ray STJ, Fuller CE, Ahmadu A et al.. “Aetiologies, neuroradiological features, and risk factors for mortality and long-term neurosequelae of febrile coma in Malawian children: a prospective cohort study.” The Lancet. Global health (2025). PMID: 40280145 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  158. [158]

    Opoka RO, Namazzi R, Datta D et al.. “Severe falciparum malaria in young children is associated with an increased risk of post-discharge hospitalization: a prospective cohort study.” Malaria journal (2024). PMID: 39633351 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  159. [159]

    Ranjbar M, Katureebe C, Musanhu CC et al.. “The 24, 2 hours initiative: a game changer in malaria mortality reduction.” Malaria journal (2025). PMID: 41219920 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  160. [160]

    Vathi S, Corriero A, Rodríguez EE et al.. “Management and monitoring strategies for severe cerebral malaria: a guide for the intensivist.” Annals of intensive care (2025). PMID: 41060528 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  161. [161]

    Aderinto N, Abraham IC, Olatunji G et al.. “Stroke incidence, presentation, and outcomes in malaria: a review of current evidence.” Malaria journal (2025). PMID: 40533728 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  162. [162]

    Long B, MacDonald A, Liang SY et al.. “Malaria: A focused review for the emergency medicine clinician.” The American journal of emergency medicine (2024). PMID: 38096639 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  163. [163]

    Tolou-Ghamari Z. “A Review of the Association between Infections, Seizures, and Drugs.” Central nervous system agents in medicinal chemistry (2025). PMID: 38676494 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  164. [164]

    Deng S, Wang W, Lu W et al.. “Anti-NMDAR encephalitis following malaria: expanding the spectrum of post-malarial neurological syndromes.” Frontiers in immunology (2026). PMID: 41909705 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  165. [165]

    Kumar A, Agatrao BA, Prakash A et al.. “Malaria-associated splenic haemorrhage requiring emergency splenectomy: a rare complication managed in a resource-constrained setting.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41787355 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  166. [166]

    Nayak B, Mohanty S, Das S et al.. “Radiological findings in fulminant cerebral malaria: a rare neuroimaging presentation.” Malaria journal (2025). PMID: 41423666 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  167. [167]

    Huang XA, Xiang R, Liao RH et al.. “Babesia microti (Babesiidae, Piroplasmida) infection in a Chinese traveler returning from the United States of America.” Infectious diseases of poverty (2025). PMID: 40490844 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  168. [168]

    Wu X, Qin N, Yi F et al.. “Cerebral malaria presenting as nonconvulsive status epilepticus: a case report.” Malaria journal (2024). PMID: 38500090 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  169. [169]

    Postels DG, Katangwe-Chirwa T. “Cerebral malaria.” Seminars in pediatric neurology (2025). PMID: 40701686 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  170. [170]

    Comino Garcia-Munoz A, Varlet I, Grau GE et al.. “Contribution of Magnetic Resonance Imaging Studies to the Understanding of Cerebral Malaria Pathogenesis.” Pathogens (Basel, Switzerland) (2024). PMID: 39770302 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  171. [171]

    Akafity G, Kumi N, Ashong J. “Diagnosis and management of malaria in the intensive care unit.” Journal of intensive medicine (2024). PMID: 38263976 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  172. [172]

    Toudou-Daouda M. “Epilepsy in Niger: An overview of the current situation.” Epilepsia open (2023). PMID: 37042866 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  173. [173]

    Yacubian EMT, Kakooza-Mwesige A, Singh G et al.. “Common infectious and parasitic diseases as a cause of seizures: geographic distribution and contribution to the burden of epilepsy.” Epileptic disorders : international epilepsy journal with videotape (2022). PMID: 36219093 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  174. [174]

    Fung JST, Hwang B, Dunsmuir D et al.. “A 2-Phase Survey to Assess a Facility's Readiness for Pediatric Essential Emergency and Critical Care in Resource-Limited Settings: A Literature Review and Survey Development.” Pediatric emergency care (2022). PMID: 35981329 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  175. [175]

    Bangirana P, Bond C, Namazzi R et al.. “Cerebral Malaria and Severe Malarial Anemia, but not Other Forms of Severe Malaria, Are Associated With Long-Term Cognitive Impairment.” Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America (2026). PMID: 41631529 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  176. [176]

    Torres-Fernandez D, Dalsuco J, Garcia-Mauriño C et al.. “Epidemiology and Outcomes of Pediatric Fever in a Rural District of Southern Mozambique: 17 Years of Morbidity Surveillance.” Open forum infectious diseases (2025). PMID: 41394513 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  177. [177]

    John Mwang'onde B. “Chlorfenapyr-pyrethroid nets for pyrethroid-resistant malaria vectors: efficacy, resistance risks, and policy implications.” Global health action (2026). PMID: 41766494 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Prevention and Screening
  178. [178]

    Tungu PK, Sudi W, Batengana B et al.. “Efficacy of long-lasting insecticidal nets before and after the selection of pyrethroid-resistant Anopheles gambiae s.l. and Anopheles funestus s.l. in northeastern Tanzania: A longitudinal meta-analysis of experimental hut trials at a single location.” Parasites & vectors (2026). PMID: 41742175 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Prevention and Screening
  179. [179]

    Firdaus MH, Ho Imran DS, Puteh SEW et al.. “Strategic resource allocation for malaria elimination in endemic settings: a systematic review of cost-effectiveness evidence.” Frontiers in public health (2025). PMID: 41737900 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Prevention and Screening
  180. [180]

    Tandel N, Thakkar M, Ahuja M et al.. “Poly(I:C) and R848 adjuvants elicit sizeable humoral immunity to liver stage malaria antigens.” Frontiers in immunology (2026). PMID: 41983137 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Prevention and Screening
  181. [181]

    Donassolo RA, Soares da Veiga GT, Nisimura LM et al.. “Naturally acquired antibodies to Plasmodium vivax Pv_LISP-2, a potential liver stage vaccine antigen.” Frontiers in immunology (2026). PMID: 41972120 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Prevention and Screening
  182. [182]

    Su JS, Stover J, Pretorius C et al.. “The benefits of investments to combat HIV, tuberculosis, and malaria for primary healthcare from 2000 to 2023: An economic modeling analysis.” PLoS medicine (2026). PMID: 41950262 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Prevention and Screening
  183. [183]

    Guido G, Totaro V, Lochoro P et al.. “Household and community-based approaches to malaria and cholera prevention: A narrative review with case studies from Uganda and Mozambique.” PLoS neglected tropical diseases (2026). PMID: 41941455 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Prevention and Screening
  184. [184]

    Zhu Y, Wu S, Qi Y et al.. “Reinventing malaria control: hierarchical intervention strategies for African settings based on the microbiota-barrier-innate immunity axis.” Frontiers in immunology (2026). PMID: 41929484 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Prevention and Screening
  185. [185]

    Traoré N, Zabré P, Millogo O et al.. “Assessing the role of interventions and climate on malaria mortality among children under five years of age: insights from two decades of data from the Health Demographic Surveillance System of Nouna, Burkina Faso.” Journal of global health (2026). PMID: 41926164 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Prevention and Screening
  186. [186]

    Yahouedo AG, Merle CS, Diallo I et al.. “Climate change and malaria control in Africa: country experiences and strategic responses.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41923083 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Prevention and Screening
  187. [187]

    Diallo EM, Langlet A, Onyango LA et al.. “Healthcare providers' knowledge, perceptions and practices of malaria control strategies in the Republic of Guinea: insights from a qualitative study.” BMJ global health (2026). PMID: 41916616 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Prevention and Screening
  188. [188]

    Diallo MA, Tine A, Sow D et al.. “Emergence of Plasmodium falciparum pfdhps A581G mutation in Southern Senegal under Seasonal Malaria Chemoprevention pressure, 2020-2023.” Communications medicine (2026). PMID: 41896338 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Prevention and Screening
  189. [189]

    Josue Kedakse TSN, Kaba M, Baonga SF et al.. “Evaluation of the first malaria vaccine introduction: ongoing learning opportunities during the introduction into routine immunisation in Cameroon.” BMJ global health (2026). PMID: 41887666 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Prevention and Screening
  190. [190]

    Lu S, Ding W, Huang L et al.. “The Institution-based Network on China-Africa Cooperation for Malaria Elimination: fostering a transcontinental hub for strengthening China-Africa cooperation on malaria control and elimination efforts.” Infectious diseases of poverty (2026). PMID: 41872959 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Prevention and Screening
  191. [191]

    Mediavilla A, García X, Martínez-Vallejo P et al.. “Molecular markers of antimalarial drug resistance in pfk13, pfmdr1, pfdhfr, and pfdhps genes of Plasmodium falciparum in a rural municipality in Cubal, Benguela Province, Angola (2022-2023).” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41840616 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Prevention and Screening
  192. [192]

    Audibert C, Borghini-Fuhrer I, El Gaaloul M et al.. “Improving malaria chemoprevention coverage in pregnancy: Surveying stakeholder preferences for new product profiles and community-delivery approaches across five African countries.” PLOS global public health (2026). PMID: 41824506 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Prevention and Screening
  193. [193]

    Otoo BAF, Opoku-Mireku M, Seaneke SK et al.. “Incidence and trends of adverse drug reactions during seasonal malaria chemoprevention among children: evidence from Ghana's pharmacovigilance database, 2015-2023.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41814293 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Prevention and Screening
  194. [194]

    Ando Y, Mori K, Bradley J et al.. “Determination of the preliminary discriminating concentration of broflanilide against malaria vector mosquito Anopheles gambiae by multi-centre susceptibility testing.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41803905 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Prevention and Screening
  195. [195]

    Dolo AM, Cissoko M, Teme A et al.. “Extreme rainfall, flooding and malaria in the Sahara: outbreak analysis in Kidal, Mali 2024.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41792755 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Prevention and Screening
  196. [196]

    Lake MW, Asemahagn MA, Gelaye KA et al.. “Climate, environmental, and programmatic correlates of malaria resurgence in Amhara, Ethiopia (2018-2024): a Bayesian spatiotemporal analysis.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41782025 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Prevention and Screening
  197. [197]

    Begashaw DT, Alemayehu MA, Animut Y et al.. “Utilization and associated factors of long-lasting insecticide-treated nets among households in Gondar Zuria district, Northwest Ethiopia: a mixed methods study, 2025.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41781949 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Prevention and Screening
  198. [198]

    Rodrigues R, Dhatrak A, Bal M et al.. “Design of an implementation research study for a digital omnichannel community engagement and risk communication intervention for the prevention and control of vector-borne diseases in India: the OMNIVEC-India study protocol.” Frontiers in public health (2025). PMID: 41777371 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Prevention and Screening
  199. [199]

    Laurenson AJ, Pierce BG, Takala-Harrison S et al.. “TEpiNom: A computational framework integrating population data to prioritize Plasmodium falciparum T cell epitopes.” Vaccine (2026). PMID: 41775037 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Prevention and Screening
  200. [200]

    Atijosan A, Atijosan A, Salau AO. “Geospatial mapping of gender-sensitive malaria vulnerability and ITN usage barriers in Zamfara State, Nigeria.” Malaria journal (2026). PMID: 41772643 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Prevention and Screening

Revision History

All updates applied to this page

Loading revisions…