Skip to main content
WoMWeb of Medicine
SearchGraphHistory
Internal Medicine›Condition·Updated Apr 17, 2026·v1

Thyroid Storm

Thyroid storm is a life-threatening hypermetabolic state requiring immediate ICU-level care and a multimodal treatment strategy (PTU, iodine, beta-blockers, and steroids). Diagnosis is clinical, primarily using the Burch-Wartofsky Point Scale, and treatment should not be delayed for laboratory results.

High Evidence137 references·1,095 words·5 min read·v1
EndocrinologyEmergency MedicineCritical CareThyroid Disorders

Quick Reference

RxDrug of choicePropylthiouracil (PTU) 200 mg PO every 4 hours
AltAlternativesMethimazole 20 mg PO every 6 hours; Esmolol infusion for IV rate control
⊘AvoidAspirin (salicylates) - displaces T4/T3 from binding proteins
DxTest of choiceClinical diagnosis via Burch-Wartofsky Point Scale (BWPS) ≥45
ScKey scoreBurch-Wartofsky Point Scale (BWPS); JTA Criteria
→When to referImmediate ICU admission and Endocrinology consultation for all suspected cases
Thyroid storm is a clinical diagnosis; initiate the 5-step treatment protocol (PTU, Iodine, Beta-blocker, Steroids, Support) immediately before lab confirmation.
Thyroid storm is a rare, life-threatening endocrine emergency representing the most extreme manifestation of [[thyrotoxicosis]]. It is characterized by a systemic breakdown of metabolic homeostasis, leading to multi-organ dysfunction, hyperpyrexia, and cardiovascular collapse. Mortality remains high, ranging from 10% to 30%, even with modern intensive care.

Overview and Recommendations

Background

  • •Recognize thyroid storm as a state of decompensated where physiological compensatory mechanisms fail. It is distinguished from uncomplicated hyperthyroidism by the presence of systemic decompensation, particularly central nervous system (CNS) dysfunction, severe thermoregulatory failure, and cardiovascular collapse.
  • •Identify as the most common underlying etiology, accounting for approximately 70% of cases. Other causes include , toxic adenoma, and rarer conditions like TSH-secreting pituitary adenomas or amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis.
  • •Understand that the transition to a storm is almost always precipitated by an acute physiological stressor. Common triggers include systemic infection (the most frequent), abrupt discontinuation of antithyroid drugs, non-thyroidal surgery, trauma, , or exposure to iodinated contrast media.
  • •Note the high mortality rate of 10-30%, which is primarily driven by multiple organ failure (MOF) and acute heart failure. Early recognition and aggressive intervention in an intensive care setting are the most significant determinants of survival.
  • •Be aware of phenotypic variants such as 'apathetic' thyroid storm in the elderly, which may present with lethargy and depression rather than agitation, or neonatal thyroid storm in infants born to mothers with poorly controlled Graves' disease.

Evaluation

  • •Suspect thyroid storm in any patient with known or suspected hyperthyroidism who presents with unexplained fever, tachycardia, or altered mental status. Do not wait for laboratory results to begin the clinical workup if the patient is unstable.
  • •Calculate the Burch-Wartofsky Point Scale (BWPS) immediately. A score ≥45 is highly suggestive of thyroid storm, 25–44 indicates impending storm, and <25 makes the diagnosis unlikely. Points are awarded for fever, CNS effects (agitation to coma), GI-hepatic dysfunction (jaundice), and cardiovascular status (tachycardia, , heart failure).
  • •Apply the Japanese Thyroid Association (JTA) criteria as an alternative or adjunct. These require confirmed thyrotoxicosis plus at least one CNS manifestation, or a combination of fever (≥38°C), tachycardia (≥130 bpm), heart failure, or GI/hepatic dysfunction.
  • •Assess the central nervous system for signs of metabolic encephalopathy. Symptoms range from mild restlessness and anxiety to severe delirium, psychosis, seizures, or a Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score <8.
  • •Examine the cardiovascular system for profound tachycardia (often >140 bpm) and signs of . Obtain an ECG to screen for , which occurs in 10-30% of cases, and malignant ventricular arrhythmias.
  • •Order stat thyroid function tests, including TSH, free T4 (FT4), and free T3 (FT3). While TSH is typically suppressed (<0.01 µU/mL) and free hormones are elevated, the absolute levels do not reliably differentiate a storm from uncomplicated thyrotoxicosis.
  • •Obtain a complete blood count (CBC), urinalysis, and blood/urine cultures to screen for infection, even in the absence of localizing symptoms. Fever is a hallmark of the storm itself but often masks an underlying infectious trigger.
  • •Evaluate liver function tests (LFTs) and bilirubin. Jaundice is a 'red flag' indicating hepatic congestion or direct thyrotoxic injury and is associated with a significantly poorer prognosis.
  • •Check blood glucose and ketones to rule out concurrent (DKA). The hypermetabolic state of thyroid storm increases insulin resistance, often exacerbating or triggering DKA.
  • •Order a chest X-ray to evaluate for pulmonary edema or cardiomegaly and a thyroid ultrasound with Doppler to identify the underlying cause, such as the increased vascularity seen in Graves' disease.
  • •Rule out clinical mimics such as sepsis, pheochromocytoma, heat stroke, or neuroleptic malignant syndrome, though these may coexist with or trigger a thyroid crisis.
  • •Monitor for (TPP) in patients presenting with acute symmetrical ascending weakness and profound hypokalemia, as this can lead to fatal arrhythmias.

Management

  • •Admit the patient immediately to the Intensive Care Unit (ICU) for continuous cardiac monitoring and aggressive multi-modal therapy. Management must address hormone synthesis, release, peripheral action, and systemic support simultaneously.
  • •Administer Propylthiouracil (PTU) 200 mg PO or via nasogastric tube every 4 hours as the first-line antithyroid drug. PTU is preferred over methimazole because it inhibits both thyroid peroxidase-mediated hormone synthesis and the peripheral conversion of T4 to T3.
  • •Administer Saturated Solution of Potassium Iodide (SSKI) 5 drops PO every 6 hours or Lugol’s solution 10 drops every 8 hours to induce the Wolff-Chaikoff effect and block hormone release. CRITICAL: Wait at least 1 hour AFTER the first dose of PTU before giving iodine to prevent the iodine from being used as a substrate for new hormone synthesis.
  • •Initiate beta-adrenergic blockade with Propranolol 60–80 mg PO every 4–6 hours. Propranolol is the agent of choice because high doses (>160 mg/day) further inhibit the peripheral conversion of T4 to T3. Use an Esmolol infusion (50–100 mcg/kg/min) if IV titration is required or if the patient has tenuous hemodynamics.
  • •Administer Hydrocortisone 100 mg IV every 8 hours or Dexamethasone 2 mg IV every 6 hours. Glucocorticoids treat relative adrenal insufficiency and provide a third mechanism for inhibiting the peripheral conversion of T4 to T3.
  • •Manage hyperthermia aggressively using Acetaminophen 650 mg every 4–6 hours and external cooling measures (cooling blankets, ice packs). AVOID Aspirin (salicylates), as they displace thyroid hormones from thyroid-binding globulin (TBG), acutely increasing free hormone levels.
  • •Provide volume resuscitation with isotonic crystalloids to correct dehydration from sweating and GI losses. Supplement with 5%–10% Dextrose to replenish hepatic glycogen stores, which are rapidly depleted in the hypermetabolic state.
  • •Escalate to (TPE) if the patient does not show clinical improvement within 24–48 hours or if antithyroid drugs are contraindicated due to agranulocytosis or severe hepatotoxicity. TPE rapidly removes protein-bound hormones and autoantibodies.
  • •Consider emergency total as a 'rescue' therapy only after the patient has been stabilized with TPE, as surgery carries an extremely high risk during the peak of a storm.
  • •Treat the precipitating trigger immediately (e.g., broad-spectrum antibiotics for suspected sepsis) to stop the ongoing physiological stress driving the crisis.
  • •Monitor for and treat with rate control (beta-blockers or Digoxin). Avoid immediate rhythm conversion, as it is often unsuccessful until the underlying thyrotoxic state is corrected.
  • •Utilize advanced circulatory support, such as Venoarterial Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation (VA-ECMO), in cases of refractory or out-of-hospital cardiac arrest associated with the storm.
  • •Transition to Methimazole 20-40 mg/day for long-term maintenance once the acute crisis has resolved and the patient is stable, as Methimazole has a lower risk of hepatotoxicity than PTU.
  • •Refer for definitive therapy with radioactive iodine (RAI) or surgery once the patient is euthyroid to prevent the high risk of recurrence (over 50% in some cohorts).
  • •Discharge only after the patient has been euthyroid for at least 48 hours, the precipitating trigger is resolved, and a clear plan for endocrinology follow-up is established.

Board Review — High Yield

  • •Wolff-Chaikoff effect — The mechanism by which high doses of inorganic iodine acutely inhibit the release of preformed thyroid hormones.
  • •Aspirin avoidance — Salicylates are contraindicated because they compete with T4/T3 for binding sites on thyroid-binding globulin, increasing the free (active) hormone fraction.
  • •PTU vs. Methimazole — PTU is preferred in acute storm because it inhibits the peripheral conversion of T4 to T3, whereas Methimazole only inhibits new synthesis.
  • •Iodine timing — Iodine must be administered at least 1 hour after the first dose of thionamides to prevent the 'Jod-Basedow' effect (iodine acting as a substrate for more hormone).
  • •Apathetic thyrotoxicosis — A variant in the elderly characterized by lethargy, depression, and heart failure rather than the classic hyperkinetic symptoms.
  • •Jaundice in storm — A poor prognostic sign indicating severe hepatic involvement or multi-organ failure.
  • •Thyrotoxic Periodic Paralysis — A complication involving acute hypokalemia and paralysis, more common in Asian males, which can trigger lethal arrhythmias during a storm.

Deep Dive — Evidence Details

References

  1. [1]

    de Mul N, Damstra J, Nieveen van Dijkum EJM et al.. “Risk of perioperative thyroid storm in hyperthyroid patients: a systematic review.” British journal of anaesthesia (2021). PMID: 34389171 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification, Prevention and Screening
  2. [2]

    Angell TE, Lechner MG, Nguyen CT et al.. “Clinical features and hospital outcomes in thyroid storm: a retrospective cohort study.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2015). PMID: 25343237 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes
  3. [3]

    Akamizu T. “Thyroid Storm: A Japanese Perspective.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2018). PMID: 28899229 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification, Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  4. [4]

    Weismann D. “[Endocrine emergencies].” Medizinische Klinik, Intensivmedizin und Notfallmedizin (2026). PMID: 41805972 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification, History and Physical Examination
  5. [5]

    Tsakiridis I, Giouleka S, Kourtis A et al.. “Thyroid Disease in Pregnancy: A Descriptive Review of Guidelines.” Obstetrical & gynecological survey (2022). PMID: 34994394 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification, History and Physical Examination, Special Populations
  6. [6]

    Vilke GM, Bozeman WP, Dawes DM et al.. “Excited delirium syndrome (ExDS): treatment options and considerations.” Journal of forensic and legal medicine (2012). PMID: 22390995 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  7. [7]

    Bourcier S, Coutrot M, Kimmoun A et al.. “Thyroid Storm in the ICU: A Retrospective Multicenter Study.” Critical care medicine (2020). PMID: 31714398 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification, Supportive Care and Complication Management, Landmark Trials and Key Evidence
  8. [8]

    Lee SY, Modzelewski KL, Law AC et al.. “Comparison of Propylthiouracil vs Methimazole for Thyroid Storm in Critically Ill Patients.” JAMA network open (2023). PMID: 37067797 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification, Landmark Trials and Key Evidence
  9. [9]

    Senda A, Endo A, Tachimori H et al.. “Early administration of glucocorticoid for thyroid storm: analysis of a national administrative database.” Critical care (London, England) (2020). PMID: 32727523 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  10. [10]

    Uwumiro F, Arji E, Okpujie V et al.. “National Trends in US Hospitalizations and Outcomes of Thyrotoxicosis With and Without Thyrotoxic Storm, 2016 to 2020.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2025). PMID: 40067969 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification, Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Diagnosis and Workup, Management: Pharmacotherapy
  11. [11]

    Thiyagarajan A, Platzbecker K, Ittermann T et al.. “Estimating Incidence and Case Fatality of Thyroid Storm in Germany Between 2007 and 2017: A Claims Data Analysis.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2022). PMID: 36006371 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification, Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  12. [12]

    Tutal E, Ozaras R, Leblebicioglu H. “Systematic review of COVID-19 and autoimmune thyroiditis.” Travel medicine and infectious disease (2022). PMID: 35307540 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  13. [13]

    Pride W, Smith A, Joseph R. “Thyroid storm following rapid sequence intubation.” The American journal of emergency medicine (2018). PMID: 30197231 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  14. [14]

    Moraco AH, Banauch G, Kopec S. “A 46-Year-Old Woman With Dyspnea From an Inhalational Exposure, Triggering Thyroid Storm and Subsequent Multi-Organ System Failure.” Journal of intensive care medicine (2015). PMID: 25680979 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, History and Physical Examination, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes
  15. [15]

    Tom A, Dean D, Wilson J. “To be or not TB.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2008). PMID: 18302521 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  16. [16]

    Kopp PA, Giordani I, Feldt-Rasmussen U et al.. “Approach to the Patient with Thyroid Storm.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2026). PMID: 41655224 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Etiology and Triggering Factors, Management: Pharmacotherapy, Supportive Care and Complication Management
  17. [17]

    Braverman KD, Pearce EN. “Iodine and Hyperthyroidism: A Double-Edged Sword.” Endocrine practice : official journal of the American College of Endocrinology and the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists (2025). PMID: 39510448 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Etiology and Triggering Factors, Management: Pharmacotherapy
  18. [18]

    Farooqi S, Raj S, Koyfman A et al.. “High risk and low prevalence diseases: Thyroid storm.” The American journal of emergency medicine (2023). PMID: 37104908 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Diagnosis and Workup, Supportive Care and Complication Management, Guidelines and Resources
  19. [19]

    Wiersinga WM, Poppe KG, Effraimidis G. “Hyperthyroidism: aetiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, management, complications, and prognosis.” The lancet. Diabetes & endocrinology (2023). PMID: 36848916 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Pathophysiology, Diagnosis and Workup, Special Populations
  20. [20]

    Boelaert K, Visser WE, Taylor PN et al.. “ENDOCRINOLOGY IN THE TIME OF COVID-19: Management of hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism.” European journal of endocrinology (2020). PMID: 32438340 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  21. [21]

    De Boos J. “Review article: Non-fatal strangulation: Hidden injuries, hidden risks.” Emergency medicine Australasia : EMA (2019). PMID: 30784203 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  22. [22]

    Rivas AM, Larumbe E, Thavaraputta S et al.. “Unfavorable Socioeconomic Factors Underlie High Rates of Hospitalization for Complicated Thyrotoxicosis in Some Regions of the United States.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2019). PMID: 30526425 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  23. [23]

    Galindo RJ, Hurtado CR, Pasquel FJ et al.. “National Trends in Incidence, Mortality, and Clinical Outcomes of Patients Hospitalized for Thyrotoxicosis With and Without Thyroid Storm in the United States, 2004-2013.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2019). PMID: 30382003 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  24. [24]

    De Leo S, Lee SY, Braverman LE. “Hyperthyroidism.” Lancet (London, England) (2016). PMID: 27038492 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Special Populations
  25. [25]

    Papi G, Corsello SM, Pontecorvi A. “Clinical concepts on thyroid emergencies.” Frontiers in endocrinology (2014). PMID: 25071718 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Pathophysiology
  26. [26]

    Martin CS, Ionescu LN, Barbu CG et al.. “Takotsubo cardiomyopathy and transient thyrotoxicosis during combination therapy with interferon-alpha and ribavirin for chronic hepatitis C.” BMC endocrine disorders (2014). PMID: 24491229 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  27. [27]

    Khoo CM, Lee KO. “Endocrine emergencies in pregnancy.” Best practice & research. Clinical obstetrics & gynaecology (2013). PMID: 24016619 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Special Populations
  28. [28]

    Akamizu T, Satoh T, Isozaki O et al.. “Diagnostic criteria, clinical features, and incidence of thyroid storm based on nationwide surveys.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2012). PMID: 22690898 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  29. [29]

    Kawashima S, Sogi C, Suzuki D et al.. “Seizures in pediatric thyroid storm: Two cases and a literature review.” Clinical pediatric endocrinology : case reports and clinical investigations : official journal of the Japanese Society for Pediatric Endocrinology (2026). PMID: 41509148 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Diagnosis and Workup
  30. [30]

    Rana R, Krier E, Tauseef A et al.. “Case Report: Methimazole-Induced Parotitis - An Unusual Presentation.” F1000Research (2024). PMID: 40291768 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Etiology and Triggering Factors, Diagnosis and Workup, Management: Pharmacotherapy, Supportive Care and Complication Management
  31. [31]

    He Y, Xu A, Yu D et al.. “Hypoglycemic Coma Caused by Methimazole-Induced Insulin Autoimmune Syndrome, a Case Study.” Diabetes, metabolic syndrome and obesity : targets and therapy (2023). PMID: 37122676 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  32. [32]

    Yamazaki K, Minakata K, Nakane T et al.. “Thyroid storm after mitral valve repair in a patient with Becker muscular dystrophy.” Journal of cardiac surgery (2021). PMID: 33305858 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  33. [33]

    Lee JH. “Thyroid storm after coronary artery bypass surgery: a case report.” Journal of cardiothoracic surgery (2020). PMID: 31948453 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  34. [34]

    Tian K, Liang T, Yew J et al.. “Management of perioperative thyrotoxicosis - what to do when standard therapy is contraindicated or fails?” Frontiers in endocrinology (2024). PMID: 39722810 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Pathophysiology, Management: Pharmacotherapy
  35. [35]

    Lincango EP, Figueroa LA, Arias Cortez C et al.. “Safety of surgery for managing hyperthyroidism in patients with or without preoperative euthyroidism: A systematic review and meta-analysis.” Endocrine (2025). PMID: 40658187 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Pathophysiology
  36. [36]

    Lisco G, Accardo G, Pupilli C et al.. “Perchlorates in the treatment of hyperthyroidism and thyrotoxicosis: a comprehensive review.” Endocrine (2024). PMID: 38195966 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Special Populations
  37. [37]

    Fung MHM, Luk Y, Yuen KKW et al.. “The Two-Year Results of Using Radiofrequency Ablation as a Novel Treatment for Persistent or Relapsed Graves' Disease: A Prospective Study.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2024). PMID: 38836419 ↗

    L2bTRIAL_NONRANDOMCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Diagnosis and Workup, Management: Pharmacotherapy, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes, Landmark Trials and Key Evidence
  38. [38]

    Newman C, Saqlain M, Mohammed IA et al.. “Iopanoic acid rapidly restores euthyroidism in refractory thyrotoxicosis pre-thyroidectomy: a retrospective study.” European thyroid journal (2026). PMID: 41738978 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Diagnosis and Workup, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes
  39. [39]

    Shao P, Li J, Ma D et al.. “Thyroid storm in a patient with unknown hyperthyroidism during nonthyroidal surgery-a case report and literature review.” BMC anesthesiology (2024). PMID: 39548388 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors
  40. [40]

    Zhao R, Fan K, Wan W. “The effect of preoperative short-term octreotide treatment to surgery in thyrotropin-secreting pituitary adenomas: a retrospective cohort study.” BMC endocrine disorders (2023). PMID: 37587420 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors
  41. [41]

    Kopanos S, Knappe UJ, Moeller AS et al.. “Delay in Diagnosis of Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone-Secreting Pituitary Adenomas: Clinical and Endocrinological Profiles from a Retrospective Cohort Study.” Hormone and metabolic research = Hormon- und Stoffwechselforschung = Hormones et metabolisme (2026). PMID: 41338539 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, History and Physical Examination, Diagnosis and Workup, Management: Pharmacotherapy
  42. [42]

    Mutlu U, Bektas F, Dadin S et al.. “Therapeutic plasmapheresis in the management of thyrotoxicosis: a-retrospective study with emphasis on critically ill patients.” Endocrine (2025). PMID: 40506657 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Diagnosis and Workup, Management: Pharmacotherapy, Supportive Care and Complication Management, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes
  43. [43]

    Calderon A, Aguilera M, Drinnon AR et al.. “Therapeutic Plasma Exchange in Severe Thyrotoxicosis: Clinical Observations From a Case Series.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2026). PMID: 41557149 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors
  44. [44]

    Ma S, Xie L, Lan P et al.. “Case Report: ECMO rescue for cardiac arrest in a hyperthyroid patient triggered by COVID-19 infection.” Frontiers in cardiovascular medicine (2025). PMID: 41163962 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors
  45. [45]

    Ma Y, Liu R, Bai T et al.. “Myocardial injury complicating diabetic ketoacidosis in type 1 diabetes mellitus with concurrent thyroid storm: Case report and literature review.” Medicine (2025). PMID: 41239662 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Pathophysiology
  46. [46]

    Huang Y, Li J, Liu C et al.. “Cardiovascular crisis induced by local epinephrine injection in vaginal tightening surgery: an unexpected hyperthyroidism case.” BMC anesthesiology (2026). PMID: 41582169 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors
  47. [47]

    Swaminathan N, Carrillo DG, Stallworth J et al.. “Intraoperative Hemodynamics of Hyperthyroidism: Controlled versus Uncontrolled Graves Disease.” The Journal of surgical research (2025). PMID: 41330161 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Pathophysiology, History and Physical Examination, Diagnosis and Workup
  48. [48]

    Lee PS, Chen JY, Kuo PC et al.. “Influence of Preoperative Thyroid Status on Clinical Outcomes in Graves' Disease Undergoing Thyroidectomy.” World journal of surgery (2025). PMID: 40744896 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Diagnosis and Workup, Management: Pharmacotherapy
  49. [49]

    Song Z, Akhund R, Wu C et al.. “From routine to rescue: Thyroidectomy for life-threatening thyrotoxicosis.” World journal of surgery (2024). PMID: 39134403 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Diagnosis and Workup
  50. [50]

    Zhang FG, Ow TJ, Lin J et al.. “Complications related to thyroidectomy among patients with hyperthyroidism: Exploring the potential for ambulatory surgery.” Head & neck (2024). PMID: 38270487 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, History and Physical Examination
  51. [51]

    Gerbal M, Gilly O, Joyeux MA et al.. “Therapeutic Plasma Exchange Shows Greater Efficacy Than DFPP in Reducing FT3 and FT4 Levels in Thyrotoxicosis due to Amiodarone-Induced Thyrotoxicosis Type 2.” Journal of clinical apheresis (2025). PMID: 41116308 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Diagnosis and Workup, Management: Pharmacotherapy, Supportive Care and Complication Management
  52. [52]

    Zeng J, Yang T, Wu L. “Thyroid storm during the recovery phase after non-thyroid surgery in a hyperthyroid patient: a case report and literature review.” Frontiers in surgery (2025). PMID: 40726736 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Diagnosis and Workup, Management: Pharmacotherapy, Supportive Care and Complication Management
  53. [53]

    Lee HG, Bom JS, Lee L et al.. “Total thyroidectomy performed under general anesthesia with venovenous extracorporeal membrane oxygenation during a thyroid storm: a case report.” Journal of cardiothoracic surgery (2025). PMID: 40556009 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Management: Pharmacotherapy
  54. [54]

    Guo H, Lv J, Zhang H et al.. “Primary hyperthyroidism complicated by primary hyperparathyroidism: a case report and literature review.” Frontiers in oncology (2025). PMID: 40224187 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Management: Pharmacotherapy
  55. [55]

    Ebrahimi P, Payab M, Taheri M et al.. “Plasma exchange as a rescue therapy for treatment-resistant thyroid storm with concurrent heart failure: a literature review based on a case report.” International journal of emergency medicine (2024). PMID: 39710667 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Supportive Care and Complication Management
  56. [56]

    Sharma V, Panda NK, Parsana M et al.. “Pyriform sinus injury in thyroidectomy: the unknown complicating the known.” Annals of the Royal College of Surgeons of England (2023). PMID: 37489521 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors
  57. [57]

    Shimatsu A, Nakamura A, Takahashi Y et al.. “Preoperative and long-term efficacy and safety of lanreotide autogel in patients with thyrotropin-secreting pituitary adenoma: a multicenter, single-arm, phase 3 study in Japan.” Endocrine journal (2021). PMID: 33692246 ↗

    L2bTRIAL_NONRANDOMCited in: Pathophysiology, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes, Landmark Trials and Key Evidence, Prevention and Screening
  58. [58]

    Badlaeva A, Tregubova A, Asaturova A et al.. “Hyperthyroidism Associated with Gestational Trophoblastic Neoplasia: Systematic Literature Review and Pathways Analysis.” Cancers (2025). PMID: 40361325 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology
  59. [59]

    Hambleton C, Buell J, Saggi B et al.. “Thyroid storm complicated by fulminant hepatic failure: case report and literature review.” The Annals of otology, rhinology, and laryngology (2013). PMID: 24358627 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Pathophysiology
  60. [60]

    Spencer L, Bubner T, Bain E et al.. “Screening and subsequent management for thyroid dysfunction pre-pregnancy and during pregnancy for improving maternal and infant health.” The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2015). PMID: 26387772 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Pathophysiology, Special Populations
  61. [61]

    Fu Y, Ge H, Zhang Y et al.. “Targeted Temperature Management for In-hospital Cardiac Arrest Caused by Thyroid Storm: A Case Report.” Frontiers in cardiovascular medicine (2021). PMID: 34368240 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Pathophysiology
  62. [62]

    Wong O, Wong A, Greene S et al.. “Prolonged coma resulting from massive levothyroxine overdose and the utility of N-terminal prohormone brain natriuretic peptide (NT-proBNP).” Clinical toxicology (Philadelphia, Pa.) (2019). PMID: 30484711 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Pathophysiology, History and Physical Examination, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes
  63. [63]

    Piantanida E. “Preoperative management in patients with Graves' disease.” Gland surgery (2017). PMID: 29142837 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology, History and Physical Examination
  64. [64]

    Srinivasan S, Misra M. “Hyperthyroidism in children.” Pediatrics in review (2015). PMID: 26034254 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Pathophysiology
  65. [65]

    Fazendin J, Zmijewski P, Allahwasaya A et al.. “Surgical Treatment of Hyperthyroidism Can Be Performed Safely Before a Euthyroid State is Achieved.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2023). PMID: 37253173 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Pathophysiology, Guidelines and Resources
  66. [66]

    Theocharidou CC, Pavlidou M, Endiaroglou M et al.. “Coma as the Sole Initial Manifestation of Levothyroxine Intoxication: A Case Report.” The Journal of emergency medicine (2025). PMID: 40545400 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Pathophysiology, Supportive Care and Complication Management
  67. [67]

    Matsubara K, Kuki I, Yamamoto N et al.. “Thyroid crisis mimicking clinically mild encephalitis/encephalopathy with a reversible splenial lesion: A pediatric case report.” Brain & development (2021). PMID: 33408037 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Pathophysiology
  68. [68]

    Shinohara M, Uchida T, Funayama T et al.. “Effect of Plasma Exchange in Thyroid Storm With Consideration of Its Distribution Into the Extravascular Space.” Journal of the Endocrine Society (2020). PMID: 32206741 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Pathophysiology
  69. [69]

    Meregildo Rodriguez ED, Gordillo Velásquez LI, Alvarado Moreno JG. “Diabetic Ketoacidosis Associated with Thyroxine (T₄) Toxicosis and Thyrotoxic Cardiomyopathy.” Medicina (Kaunas, Lithuania) (2018). PMID: 30486325 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Pathophysiology
  70. [70]

    Creo AL, Cannon BC, Pittock ST. “Thyroid storm after choking.” Journal of pediatric endocrinology & metabolism : JPEM (2018). PMID: 29935115 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Pathophysiology
  71. [71]

    Rathish D, Karalliyadda S. “Concurrent presentation of thyroid storm and diabetic ketoacidosis: a systematic review of previously reported cases.” BMC endocrine disorders (2019). PMID: 31101104 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: History and Physical Examination, Supportive Care and Complication Management, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes
  72. [72]

    Satoh T, Isozaki O, Suzuki A et al.. “2016 Guidelines for the management of thyroid storm from The Japan Thyroid Association and Japan Endocrine Society (First edition).” Endocrine journal (2016). PMID: 27746415 ↗

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: History and Physical Examination, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes, Guidelines and Resources
  73. [73]

    Chaikind JR, Pambianchi HL, Bledowski C. “Catatonia Associated with Hyperthyroidism: An Illustrative Case and Systematic Review of Published Cases.” Journal of the Academy of Consultation-Liaison Psychiatry (2025). PMID: 39613300 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: History and Physical Examination
  74. [74]

    Abisad DA, Glenn Lecea EM, Ballesteros AM et al.. “Thyroid storm in pediatrics: a systematic review.” Journal of pediatric endocrinology & metabolism : JPEM (2023). PMID: 36318760 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: History and Physical Examination, Diagnosis and Workup, Supportive Care and Complication Management, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes
  75. [75]

    Kruithoff ML, Gigliotti BJ. “Thyroid Emergencies: A Narrative Review.” Endocrine practice : official journal of the American College of Endocrinology and the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists (2025). PMID: 40553957 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: History and Physical Examination, Management: Pharmacotherapy, Supportive Care and Complication Management
  76. [76]

    Cruz-Flores S. “Neurological Complications of Endocrine Emergencies.” Current neurology and neuroscience reports (2021). PMID: 33709163 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: History and Physical Examination, Supportive Care and Complication Management, Special Populations
  77. [77]

    Baldo BA, Rose MA. “The anaesthetist, opioid analgesic drugs, and serotonin toxicity: a mechanistic and clinical review.” British journal of anaesthesia (2020). PMID: 31653394 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: History and Physical Examination, Supportive Care and Complication Management
  78. [78]

    Gong PH, Dong XS, Li C et al.. “Acute severe asthma with thyroid crisis and myasthenia: a case report and literature review.” The clinical respiratory journal (2017). PMID: 26471346 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: History and Physical Examination, Supportive Care and Complication Management
  79. [79]

    Bridwell RE, Figlewicz MR, Birdsong S et al.. “Pediatric volvulus induced thyroid storm.” The American journal of emergency medicine (2021). PMID: 33926769 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: History and Physical Examination, Special Populations
  80. [80]

    Park BD, Lyn-Kew K, Granchelli A et al.. “A 62-Year-Old Woman With Diffuse Myalgias, Fatigue, and Shortness of Breath.” Chest (2020). PMID: 32145820 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: History and Physical Examination, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes
  81. [81]

    Ladd JM, Sabsabi B, von Oettingen JE. “Thyroid Storm in a Toddler Presenting as a Febrile Seizure.” Pediatrics (2020). PMID: 31980544 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: History and Physical Examination
  82. [82]

    Kostopoulos G, Effraimidis G. “Approach to the patient with severe hyperthyroidism-related complications.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2026). PMID: 41823424 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination, Supportive Care and Complication Management
  83. [83]

    Stults G, Marks S, Kuzel A et al.. “Refractory ventricular fibrillation from thyrotoxic hypokalemic periodic paralysis.” The American journal of emergency medicine (2025). PMID: 40518345 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Diagnosis and Workup, Management: Pharmacotherapy
  84. [84]

    Iino T, Akatsuka M, Yamamoto S. “Case Report: Occurrence of Thyroid Storm in a Young Patient With Recurrent Diabetic Ketoacidosis.” Frontiers in endocrinology (2022). PMID: 35370958 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Diagnosis and Workup, Guidelines and Resources
  85. [85]

    Takedani K, Notsu M, Adachi N et al.. “Thyroid crisis caused by metastatic thyroid cancer: an autopsy case report.” BMC endocrine disorders (2021). PMID: 34689780 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Diagnosis and Workup, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes
  86. [86]

    Lim SL, Wang K, Lui PL et al.. “Crash Landing of Thyroid Storm: A Case Report and Review of the Role of Extra-Corporeal Systems.” Frontiers in endocrinology (2021). PMID: 34489870 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Diagnosis and Workup, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes
  87. [87]

    Greene A, Dainty S, Quinn KH et al.. “Thyroid Disease in Pregnancy: A Working Framework for Identifying and Treating Pathologic Thyroid Function and Optimizing Pregnancy Outcomes.” Obstetrics and gynecology clinics of North America (2025). PMID: 40769658 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Diagnosis and Workup, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes, Special Populations
  88. [88]

    Duntas LH, Zarkovic M. “A Small Opening in the Storm Clouds: Overview of the Registry-based Study on the Management of Thyroid Storm.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2024). PMID: 39119880 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup, Management: Pharmacotherapy
  89. [89]

    Matsuo Y, Miyawaki A, Watanabe H et al.. “Potassium Iodide Use and Patient Outcomes for Thyroid Storm: An Observational Study.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2025). PMID: 38546426 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup
  90. [90]

    Furukawa Y, Tanaka K, Isozaki O et al.. “Prospective Multicenter Registry-Based Study on Thyroid Storm: The Guidelines for Management From Japan Are Useful.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2024). PMID: 38454797 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup, Landmark Trials and Key Evidence, Guidelines and Resources
  91. [91]

    Fung MHM, Lang BHH. “Efficacy of single-session radiofrequency ablation (RFA) in rendering euthyroidism for persistent/relapsed Graves' disease, a pilot study.” European radiology (2023). PMID: 37036479 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup
  92. [92]

    Arai M, Asaumi Y, Murata S et al.. “Thyroid Storm Patients With Elevated Brain Natriuretic Peptide Levels and Associated Left Ventricular Dilatation May Require Percutaneous Mechanical Support.” Critical care explorations (2021). PMID: 34939035 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup
  93. [93]

    Lin Q, Jin H, Xu Y et al.. “Double Filtration Plasmapheresis for Thyroid Storm With Encephalopathy: A Case Report.” Journal of clinical apheresis (2025). PMID: 41103187 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Diagnosis and Workup, Management: Pharmacotherapy, Supportive Care and Complication Management
  94. [94]

    Aleksashina A, Rachina S, Kiyakbaev G et al.. “A Case of Acute Neurologic Deficit and Hypoglycemia in the Setting of Thyroid Storm and Diabetic Ketoacidosis: A New Clinical Scenario.” Korean journal of family medicine (2024). PMID: 38272451 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Diagnosis and Workup
  95. [95]

    Gong S, Hong W, Wu J et al.. “Cerebral venous sinus thrombosis caused by traumatic brain injury complicating thyroid storm: a case report and discussion.” BMC neurology (2022). PMID: 35794521 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Diagnosis and Workup
  96. [96]

    Chen YH, Liao CP, Lu CW et al.. “Thyroid Storm Superimposed on Gestational Hypertension: A Case Report and Review of Literature.” Medicina (Kaunas, Lithuania) (2022). PMID: 35334626 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Diagnosis and Workup, Special Populations
  97. [97]

    Li D, Li F. “Case Report: A case of thyroid storm with lower FT3 and FT4 levels accompanied by acute liver failure.” Frontiers in medicine (2025). PMID: 41122514 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Management: Pharmacotherapy
  98. [98]

    A D, Cs H. “Thyroid disease as a teratogen.” Seminars in perinatology (2025). PMID: 40216573 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Management: Pharmacotherapy, Special Populations
  99. [99]

    Getman T, Vu J, Nasiri H. “Thyroid Storm-Induced Respiratory Failure Requiring Venovenous Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation.” The Permanente journal (2026). PMID: 41457705 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Management: Pharmacotherapy
  100. [100]

    Alfadhli E, Gianoukakis AG. “Management of severe thyrotoxicosis when the gastrointestinal tract is compromised.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2011). PMID: 21254909 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  101. [101]

    Inman BL, Long B. “Thyrotoxicosis.” Endocrinology and metabolism clinics of North America (2026). PMID: 41656038 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  102. [102]

    Sullivan SA, Goodier C. “Endocrine emergencies.” Obstetrics and gynecology clinics of North America (2013). PMID: 23466141 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management, Special Populations
  103. [103]

    Pendleton C, Mathioudakis N, Salvatori R et al.. “"Glandular intoxication" following emergent tracheotomy during transsphenoidal surgery for acromegaly: Cushing's 1910 unrecognized case of thyroid storm?” Pituitary (2012). PMID: 21394474 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  104. [104]

    Jha S, Waghdhare S, Reddi R et al.. “Thyroid storm due to inappropriate administration of a compounded thyroid hormone preparation successfully treated with plasmapheresis.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2012). PMID: 23067331 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  105. [105]

    Majlesi N, Greller HA, McGuigan MA et al.. “Thyroid storm after pediatric levothyroxine ingestion.” Pediatrics (2010). PMID: 20643722 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  106. [106]

    Inman BL, Long B. “Thyrotoxicosis.” Emergency medicine clinics of North America (2023). PMID: 37758422 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  107. [107]

    Tenner AG, Halvorson KM. “Endocrine causes of dangerous fever.” Emergency medicine clinics of North America (2013). PMID: 24176474 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  108. [108]

    Matsuo Y, Jo T, Watanabe H et al.. “Clinical Efficacy of Beta-1 Selective Beta-Blockers Versus Propranolol in Patients With Thyroid Storm: A Retrospective Cohort Study.” Critical care medicine (2024). PMID: 38551468 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes, Guidelines and Resources
  109. [109]

    Trohman RG, Sharma PS, McAninch EA et al.. “Amiodarone and thyroid physiology, pathophysiology, diagnosis and management.” Trends in cardiovascular medicine (2019). PMID: 30309693 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes
  110. [110]

    Niles D, Boguniewicz J, Shakeel O et al.. “Candida tropicalis Thyroiditis Presenting With Thyroid Storm in a Pediatric Patient With Acute Lymphocytic Leukemia.” The Pediatric infectious disease journal (2019). PMID: 31365478 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes
  111. [111]

    Cui D, Ding M, Tang X et al.. “Efficacy and safety of a combination of hydrodissection and radiofrequency ablation therapy for benign thyroid nodules larger than 2 cm: A retrospective study.” Journal of cancer research and therapeutics (2019). PMID: 30964116 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes
  112. [112]

    Röhrl S, Dendl LM, Scharf G et al.. “Informed Consent in Contrast-Enhanced CT: Understanding of Risks and Identification of Possible Prognostic Factors.” RoFo : Fortschritte auf dem Gebiete der Rontgenstrahlen und der Nuklearmedizin (2015). PMID: 26509561 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes, Landmark Trials and Key Evidence
  113. [113]

    Liang CM, Ho MH, Wu XY et al.. “Thyroid storm following trauma: a pitfall in the emergency department.” Injury (2015). PMID: 25174661 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes
  114. [114]

    Bahn Chair RS, Burch HB, Cooper DS et al.. “Hyperthyroidism and other causes of thyrotoxicosis: management guidelines of the American Thyroid Association and American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2011). PMID: 21510801 ↗

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Special Populations, Guidelines and Resources
  115. [115]

    Hamidi OP, Barbour LA. “Endocrine Emergencies During Pregnancy: Diabetic Ketoacidosis and Thyroid Storm.” Obstetrics and gynecology clinics of North America (2022). PMID: 36122980 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Special Populations
  116. [116]

    Tyer NM, Kim TY, Martinez DS. “Review of oral cholecystographic agents for the management of hyperthyroidism.” Endocrine practice : official journal of the American College of Endocrinology and the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists (2014). PMID: 25100369 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Special Populations
  117. [117]

    Fitzpatrick DL, Russell MA. “Diagnosis and management of thyroid disease in pregnancy.” Obstetrics and gynecology clinics of North America (2010). PMID: 20685547 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Special Populations
  118. [118]

    Lombaard H, Pattinson RC. “Underlying medical conditions.” Best practice & research. Clinical obstetrics & gynaecology (2008). PMID: 18675594 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Special Populations
  119. [119]

    Liang M, Wang H, Tan L et al.. “Successful treatment of thyrotoxic crisis after esophagectomy in an elderly woman with hyperthyroidism.” The Annals of thoracic surgery (2012). PMID: 22632530 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Special Populations
  120. [120]

    Shibata SC, Mizobuchi A, Shibuta S et al.. “Undiagnosed thyrotoxicosis in a pregnant woman with spontaneous renal artery aneurysm rupture.” Anesthesia and analgesia (2009). PMID: 19448218 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Special Populations
  121. [121]

    Chiniwala NU, Woolf PD, Bruno CP et al.. “Thyroid storm caused by a partial hydatidiform mole.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2008). PMID: 18352822 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Special Populations
  122. [122]

    Park S, Kim TY, Sim S et al.. “Association of KCNJ2 Genetic Variants with Susceptibility to Thyrotoxic Periodic Paralysis in Patients with Graves' Disease.” Experimental and clinical endocrinology & diabetes : official journal, German Society of Endocrinology [and] German Diabetes Association (2017). PMID: 28008586 ↗

    L2bTRIAL_NONRANDOMCited in: Landmark Trials and Key Evidence
  123. [123]

    Lee Chin K, Ling Yap Y, Leng Lee W et al.. “Comparing effectiveness of high-fidelity human patient simulation vs case-based learning in pharmacy education.” American journal of pharmaceutical education (2014). PMID: 25386018 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Landmark Trials and Key Evidence
  124. [124]

    Zhao SX, Liu W, Liang J et al.. “Assessment of Molecular Subtypes in Thyrotoxic Periodic Paralysis and Graves Disease Among Chinese Han Adults: A Population-Based Genome-Wide Association Study.” JAMA network open (2019). PMID: 31050781 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Landmark Trials and Key Evidence
  125. [125]

    Builes-Montaño CE, Rodriguez-Arrieta LA, Román-González A et al.. “Therapeutic plasmapheresis for the treatment of thyrotoxicosis: A retrospective multi-center study.” Journal of clinical apheresis (2021). PMID: 34273178 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Landmark Trials and Key Evidence
  126. [126]

    Papapetrou PD. “Maximinus Daia, a Roman emperor who may have had Graves' disease and died of a thyrotoxic crisis.” Hormones (Athens, Greece) (2013). PMID: 23624140 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Landmark Trials and Key Evidence
  127. [127]

    Yamamoto J, Dostmohamed H, Schacter I et al.. “Preoperative therapeutic apheresis for severe medically refractory amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis: a case report.” Journal of clinical apheresis (2014). PMID: 24265247 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Prevention and Screening
  128. [128]

    Fukuhara N, Horiguchi K, Nishioka H et al.. “Short-term preoperative octreotide treatment for TSH-secreting pituitary adenoma.” Endocrine journal (2015). PMID: 25273395 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Prevention and Screening
  129. [129]

    Ezer A, Caliskan K, Parlakgumus A et al.. “Preoperative therapeutic plasma exchange in patients with thyrotoxicosis.” Journal of clinical apheresis (2009). PMID: 19484727 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Prevention and Screening
  130. [130]

    Sabljak V, Kalezić N, Ivanović B et al.. “Modern concepts of preoperative preparation of patients with thyroid gland disease.” Acta chirurgica Iugoslavica (2011). PMID: 21879658 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Prevention and Screening
  131. [131]

    Apaydin T, Gogas Yavuz D. “Preoperative plasmapheresis in patients with Graves' disease intolerant to antithyroid drugs.” Therapeutic apheresis and dialysis : official peer-reviewed journal of the International Society for Apheresis, the Japanese Society for Apheresis, the Japanese Society for Dialysis Therapy (2021). PMID: 33661574 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Prevention and Screening
  132. [132]

    Alvis J, Suarez-Winowiski O. “Preoperative Anesthesia Evaluation in a Patient With Hyperthyroidism and a Mediastinal Mass: A Case Report.” A&A practice (2025). PMID: 41643184 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Prevention and Screening
  133. [133]

    Leuştean L, Preda C, Ungureanu MC et al.. “Jod-Basedow effect due to prolonged use of lugol solution-case report.” Revista medico-chirurgicala a Societatii de Medici si Naturalisti din Iasi (2014). PMID: 25581962 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Prevention and Screening
  134. [134]

    Masamune T, Matsukawa T. “[Abnormality of thyroid function].” Masui. The Japanese journal of anesthesiology (2010). PMID: 20662290 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Prevention and Screening
  135. [135]

    Arima H, Iwama S, Inaba H et al.. “Management of immune-related adverse events in endocrine organs induced by immune checkpoint inhibitors: clinical guidelines of the Japan Endocrine Society.” Endocrine journal (2019). PMID: 31243183 ↗

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources
  136. [136]

    Al Jassim A, Wallace T, Bouhabel S et al.. “A retrospective cohort study: do patients with graves' disease need to be euthyroid prior to surgery?” Journal of otolaryngology - head & neck surgery = Le Journal d'oto-rhino-laryngologie et de chirurgie cervico-faciale (2018). PMID: 29784035 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Guidelines and Resources
  137. [137]

    Shinall MC, Broome JT, Nookala R et al.. “Total thyroidectomy for Graves' disease: compliance with American Thyroid Association guidelines may not always be necessary.” Surgery (2013). PMID: 24075271 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Guidelines and Resources

Revision History

All updates applied to this page

Loading revisions…