Skip to main content
Internal MedicineCondition·Updated Apr 16, 2026·v1

Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone Secretion (SIADH)

SIADH is a common electrolyte disorder characterized by euvolemic hypotonic hyponatremia due to inappropriate AVP activity. Diagnosis requires excluding renal, adrenal, and thyroid dysfunction. Management prioritizes safety, using hypertonic saline for emergencies and fluid restriction or vaptans for chronic cases, with a strict focus on avoiding rapid sodium overcorrection.

High Evidence199 references·942 words·4 min read·v1
hyponatremiaendocrinologynephrologyinternal medicineparaneoplastic syndrome

Quick Reference

RxDrug of choiceHypertonic saline (3% NaCl) for acute/severe; Fluid restriction for chronic.
AltAlternativesTolvaptan, Oral Urea, Empagliflozin (emerging), Loop diuretics + Salt tablets.
AvoidRapid correction of sodium (>12 mEq/L in 24h); Vaptans in hypovolemic hyponatremia.
DxTest of choicePaired serum and urine osmolality with urinary sodium.
ScKey scoreBartter and Schwartz Criteria.
When to referSevere symptomatic hyponatremia, sodium <120 mEq/L, or failure of fluid restriction.
SIADH is a diagnosis of exclusion requiring euvolemia, concentrated urine, and high urine sodium; correct slowly to prevent ODS.
The Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone Secretion (SIADH) is the most common cause of euvolemic hyponatremia in hospitalized patients. It is characterized by the non-physiological release of arginine vasopressin (AVP), leading to excessive water reabsorption in the renal collecting ducts via V2 receptors. This results in dilutional hyponatremia, inappropriately concentrated urine, and elevated urinary sodium excretion despite normal or increased circulating volume.

Overview and Recommendations

Background

  • Define SIADH as a state of caused by non-osmotic AVP secretion.
  • Identify common triggers including , traumatic brain injury, stroke, and pneumonia.
  • Review medication history for offending agents such as , carbamazepine, cyclophosphamide, and NSAIDs.
  • Recognize that the pathophysiology involves constitutive activation of channels in the renal collecting ducts.
  • Distinguish from (CSWS), which presents with hypovolemia and high urine output.

Evaluation

  • Confirm hypotonic hyponatremia with serum sodium <135 mEq/L and serum osmolality <275 mOsm/kg.
  • Document inappropriate urine concentration with urine osmolality >100 mOsm/kg.
  • Obtain spot urine sodium; levels >30 mmol/L suggest SIADH in the setting of normal salt intake.
  • Rule out and by checking TSH and morning cortisol levels.
  • Assess clinical volume status to ensure the patient is euvolemic (absence of edema, ascites, or orthostatic hypotension).
  • Calculate fractional excretion of uric acid (FEUrate); a value >12% strongly supports SIADH.
  • Order chest X-ray or CT to screen for occult pulmonary malignancy or infection.

Management

  • Administer Hypertonic Saline (3% NaCl) 100–150 mL IV bolus over 20 minutes for severe symptoms (seizures, coma).
  • Limit sodium correction to <10 mmol/L in the first 24 hours to avoid .
  • Initiate fluid restriction to 800–1000 mL/day as first-line therapy for asymptomatic or mild cases.
  • Consider Tolvaptan 7.5 mg to 15 mg orally once daily for patients refractory to fluid restriction.
  • Administer oral urea 15–30 g daily to induce osmotic diuresis in chronic or oncology-related cases.
  • Utilize loop diuretics (e.g., Furosemide 20 mg) combined with salt tablets to increase solute-free water clearance.
  • Discontinue any suspected offending medications immediately.
  • Monitor serum sodium every 4–6 hours during the active correction phase.

Board Review — High Yield

  • Small Cell Lung Cancer — The classic paraneoplastic cause of ectopic ADH production.
  • Euvolemia — The essential clinical volume status required for SIADH diagnosis.
  • Osmotic Demyelination Syndrome — The catastrophic neurological consequence of correcting sodium too rapidly, often affecting the pons.
  • Urine Osmolality >100 mOsm/kg — The hallmark of 'inappropriate' concentration in the face of serum hypotonicity.
  • Hypouricemia — Low serum uric acid (<4 mg/dL) is common due to increased urate clearance.
  • V2 Receptor — The specific vasopressin receptor in the kidney targeted by AVP and antagonized by vaptans.
  • Copeptin — A stable surrogate biomarker for AVP that is elevated in SIADH.
  • Reset Osmostat — A variant of SIADH where ADH is regulated but at a lower osmotic threshold.

Deep Dive — Evidence Details

References

  1. [1]

    Abufaraj M, Ramadan R, Alkhatib A. Paraneoplastic Syndromes in Neuroendocrine Prostate Cancer: A Systematic Review. Current oncology (Toronto, Ont.) (2024). PMID: 38534956

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Definition and Components
  2. [2]

    Alindogan A, Joseph R. Disorders of Sodium. Endocrinology and metabolism clinics of North America (2026). PMID: 41656034

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Definition and Components, Clinical Features, Management, Complications and Prognosis
  3. [3]

    Dellal FD, Karaahmetli G, Guven SC et al.. Eosinophilic granulomatosis with polyangiitis as a rare cause of the syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion. Irish journal of medical science (2023). PMID: 35895178

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Definition and Components, Laboratory Workup and Imaging
  4. [4]

    Lindner G, Schwarz C, Haidinger M et al.. Hyponatremia in the emergency department. The American journal of emergency medicine (2022). PMID: 35870366

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Definition and Components
  5. [5]

    Adrogué HJ, Tucker BM, Madias NE. Diagnosis and Management of Hyponatremia: A Review. JAMA (2022). PMID: 35852524

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Definition and Components, Complications and Prognosis
  6. [6]

    Nishii M, Shimomura M, Okada S et al.. Syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone (SIADH) by osimertinib and continued treatment with dose reduction for postoperative recurrence of lung adenocarcinoma: a case report. Translational lung cancer research (2025). PMID: 41132965

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Definition and Components, Etiology, Clinical Features, Special Populations
  7. [7]

    Arecco A, Demontis D, Della Sala L et al.. Case report: Twice-daily tolvaptan dosing regimen in a challenging case of hyponatremia due to SIAD. Frontiers in endocrinology (2023). PMID: 38288467

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Definition and Components, Management
  8. [8]

    Lee LMY, Tan SYT, Loh WJ. High Urinary Sodium Concentrations in Severe SIADH: Case Reports of 2 Patients and Literature Review. Frontiers in medicine (2022). PMID: 35602488

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Definition and Components, Laboratory Workup and Imaging, Differential Diagnosis
  9. [9]

    van Bockxmeer JJ, Lau A, Varshney V. Ketamine-precipitated syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion in a patient with persistent lumbar pain: a case report. Canadian journal of anaesthesia = Journal canadien d'anesthesie (2022). PMID: 35233721

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Definition and Components
  10. [10]

    Alindogan A, Joseph R. Disorders of Sodium. Emergency medicine clinics of North America (2023). PMID: 37758418

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Definition and Components, Clinical Features, Complications and Prognosis
  11. [11]

    Tseriotis VS, Mitkani C, Lioliou F et al.. Encephalopathy with cerebellar deficits in a context of hyponatremia. Acta neurologica Belgica (2024). PMID: 39343832

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Definition and Components, Clinical Features, Diagnostic Criteria
  12. [12]

    Thuerlimann AC, Morel J, Martin PY et al.. Successful Treatment of SIADH after Removal of Ruptured Breast Implants. Plastic and reconstructive surgery. Global open (2024). PMID: 38379779

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Definition and Components, Etiology, Clinical Features
  13. [13]

    Villalvazo P, Fernandez-Prado R, Niño MDS et al.. Who killed Bruce Lee? The hyponatraemia hypothesis. Clinical kidney journal (2022). PMID: 36381374

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition and Components, Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Etiology
  14. [14]

    Quigley N, Garneau AP, Haydock L et al.. Extreme Hyponatremia Complicated by Osmotic Demyelination in a Previously Healthy Young Individual. Canadian journal of kidney health and disease (2022). PMID: 36406868

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Definition and Components
  15. [15]

    Wang AY, Wong TT, Hsieh KL et al.. Giant cystic hypothalamic hamartoma in an infant associated with persistent syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion. Child's nervous system : ChNS : official journal of the International Society for Pediatric Neurosurgery (2022). PMID: 35048169

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Definition and Components
  16. [16]

    Zhou XH, Li Y, Wang CJ et al.. [Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation in a child: a case report and literature review]. Zhongguo dang dai er ke za zhi = Chinese journal of contemporary pediatrics (2026). PMID: 41766157

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Definition and Components
  17. [17]

    Izquierdo Alarcón B, Castillo Pérez C, Jurado Parras P et al.. Approach to hyponatremia: the value of fractional excretion of uric acid and phosphate. Laboratory medicine (2026). PMID: 41886512

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Definition and Components, Differential Diagnosis
  18. [18]

    Sato S, Arahata M, Kumano Y et al.. Multiple endocrine neoplasia with an atypical clinical course and a MEN1 gene variant of uncertain pathogenicity: A case report. Medicine (2026). PMID: 41760078

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Definition and Components, Clinical Features, Diagnostic Criteria
  19. [19]

    López-Trejo FI, Cedillo-Urbina MR, Maldonado-Tenesaca AP et al.. Hyponatraemia-induced Takotsubo syndrome secondary to idiopathic syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone: a case report. European heart journal. Case reports (2025). PMID: 39925775

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Definition and Components, Clinical Features
  20. [20]

    Tse JD, Wang J. Neuroinflammation-Induced SIADH in West Nile Virus Infection: An Uncommon Neurological and Endocrine Manifestation. The American journal of case reports (2024). PMID: 39340143

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Definition and Components, Clinical Features
  21. [21]

    Thomas A, Finlay J, Sharp C. Suspected paraneoplastic syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion associated with a gastric adenocarcinoma in a dog. Australian veterinary journal (2024). PMID: 39157893

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Definition and Components
  22. [22]

    Gomaa A, Skelly R. Pituitary macroadenoma apoplexy as a rare complication of Bruton tyrosine kinase inhibitor in chronic lymphoid leukaemia. Chinese neurosurgical journal (2023). PMID: 37875968

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition and Components
  23. [23]

    Okitsu M, Sugaya K, Yoneda M et al.. Hashimoto Encephalopathy Presenting with Acute Psychosis and Inappropriate Secretion of Antidiuretic Hormone: A Rare Case Responding to Steroid Therapy. The American journal of case reports (2023). PMID: 38085696

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Definition and Components, Clinical Features, Differential Diagnosis
  24. [24]

    Oda Y, Tsubouchi H, Ishii N et al.. A rare case of concomitant Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome and syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion in a patient with small cell lung carcinoma. Respiratory medicine case reports (2023). PMID: 37920363

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Definition and Components, Clinical Features
  25. [25]

    Marilda M, Rosa L, Stefano T et al.. Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuresis and Diabetes Insipidus as Two Sides of the Same Coin in Hypothalamic Lymphoma: A Case Report. Endocrine, metabolic & immune disorders drug targets (2023). PMID: 36424791

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Definition and Components
  26. [26]

    Wang M, Zhang L, Jia M et al.. Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion is associated with different proton pump inhibitor use: a pharmacovigilance study. BMC nephrology (2022). PMID: 35590283

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition and Components
  27. [27]

    Koizumi T, Kobayashi T, Kanda S et al.. Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone Secretion as the Initial Presentation in a Patient with Stage I Small-cell Lung Cancer. Internal medicine (Tokyo, Japan) (2022). PMID: 35228477

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Definition and Components
  28. [28]

    Webb KL, Reilly CE, Hinkle ML et al.. Incidence and risk factors of hyponatremia after transsphenoidal surgery: a systematic meta-analysis. Neurosurgical review (2025). PMID: 40892282

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Laboratory Workup and Imaging, Management, Special Populations
  29. [29]

    Daloiso A, Gaudioso P, Vinciguerra A et al.. Ectopic olfactory neuroblastoma is associated with increased frequency of syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion and reduced disease control: Case series with systematic review and pooled analysis. International forum of allergy & rhinology (2025). PMID: 39661032

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Pathophysiology
  30. [30]

    Chander S, Kumari R, Lohana AC et al.. Urea to Treat Hyponatremia Due to Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone Secretion: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. American journal of kidney diseases : the official journal of the National Kidney Foundation (2025). PMID: 39362395

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Diagnostic Criteria, Management
  31. [31]

    Krisanapan P, Tangpanithandee S, Thongprayoon C et al.. Safety and Efficacy of Vaptans in the Treatment of Hyponatremia from Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone Secretion (SIADH): A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of clinical medicine (2023). PMID: 37685548

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Pathophysiology, Complications and Prognosis
  32. [32]

    Martinez-Perez R, Kortz MW, Florez-Perdomo W et al.. Endocrinological outcomes after transcranial resection of tuberculum sellae meningiomas: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Neurosurgical review (2022). PMID: 35149901

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Special Populations
  33. [33]

    Bartalis E, Gergics M, Tinusz B et al.. Prevalence and Prognostic Significance of Hyponatremia in Patients With Lung Cancer: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Frontiers in medicine (2021). PMID: 34950676

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Etiology, Complications and Prognosis
  34. [34]

    Perez-Vega C, Tripathi S, Domingo RA et al.. Fluid Restriction After Transsphenoidal Surgery for the Prevention of Delayed Hyponatremia: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Endocrine practice : official journal of the American College of Endocrinology and the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists (2021). PMID: 34265453

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Special Populations
  35. [35]

    Skribek M, Bozoky B, Tsakonas G. Osimertinib-induced syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone in oncogene-addicted lung adenocarcinoma: A case report. Lung cancer (Amsterdam, Netherlands) (2022). PMID: 35276629

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Etiology
  36. [36]

    Wardhana DPW, Soetomo CT, Satyarsa ABS et al.. Critical shift phase in deep vein thrombosis development after major sellar region tumor surgeries: a systematic review. Annals of medicine (2025). PMID: 41392925

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Special Populations
  37. [37]

    Hossain MF, Kharel M, Husna AU et al.. Prevalence of Electrolyte Imbalance in Patients With Acute Stroke: A Systematic Review. Cureus (2023). PMID: 37692728

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Complications and Prognosis
  38. [38]

    Khidir RJY, Ibrahim BAY, Adam MHM et al.. Prevalence and outcomes of hyponatremia among COVID-19 patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis. International journal of health sciences (2022). PMID: 36101848

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Complications and Prognosis
  39. [39]

    Mohamed MFH, Ahmed AOE, Habib MB et al.. The prevalence of the syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion (SIADH) in brucellosis patients: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Annals of medicine and surgery (2012) (2022). PMID: 35198172

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Pathophysiology
  40. [40]

    Moscona-Nissan A, López-Hernández JC, González-Morales AP. Mirtazapine Risk of Hyponatremia and Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone Secretion in Adult and Elderly Patients: A Systematic Review. Cureus (2021). PMID: 35141079

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Etiology
  41. [41]

    Anastassopoulou C, Panagiotopoulos AP, Ferous S et al.. RSV vaccines and Guillain-Barré syndrome: Insights into an emerging concern. Vaccine (2025). PMID: 40466480

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Complications and Prognosis
  42. [42]

    Dang S, Zhang S, Zhao J et al.. The syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone associated with nasal and paranasal malignant tumors. European archives of oto-rhino-laryngology : official journal of the European Federation of Oto-Rhino-Laryngological Societies (EUFOS) : affiliated with the German Society for Oto-Rhino-Laryngology - Head and Neck Surgery (2024). PMID: 38163817

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Diagnostic Criteria, Management
  43. [43]

    Maesaka JK, Imbriano LJ, Grant C et al.. High prevalence of renal salt wasting induced by haptoglobin-related protein without signal peptide is linked to new syndrome of salt wasting in Alzheimer disease. Kidney research and clinical practice (2024). PMID: 37919890

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Differential Diagnosis
  44. [44]

    Akaishi T, Tarasawa K, Matsumoto Y et al.. Associations between neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder, Sjögren's syndrome, and conditions with electrolyte disturbances. Journal of the neurological sciences (2023). PMID: 37515845

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  45. [45]

    Naimi B, Duffy A, Garvey E et al.. Trends in Endoscopic and Microscopic Approaches to Transsphenoidal Pituitary Surgery in the US. The Laryngoscope (2023). PMID: 37318105

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Special Populations
  46. [46]

    Charalambous LT, Adil SM, Rajkumar S et al.. A Nationwide Analysis of Aneurysmal Subarachnoid Hemorrhage Mortality, Complications, and Health Economics in the USA. Translational stroke research (2023). PMID: 35881231

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Complications and Prognosis, Special Populations
  47. [47]

    Roser P, Mende KC, Dimitriadis GK et al.. The Potential of Self-Assessment and Associated Factors for Delayed Symptomatic Hyponatremia Following Transsphenoidal Surgery: A Single Center Experience. Journal of clinical medicine (2022). PMID: 36615106

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  48. [48]

    Maesaka JK, Imbriano LJ, Grant C et al.. New Approach to Hyponatremia: High Prevalence of Cerebral/Renal Salt Wasting, Identification of Natriuretic Protein That Causes Salt Wasting. Journal of clinical medicine (2022). PMID: 36556061

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Laboratory Workup and Imaging, Differential Diagnosis
  49. [49]

    Sumisławski P, Piffko A, Huckhagel T et al.. Exoscopic vs. microscopic transsphenoidal surgery for Cushing's disease: a retrospective single-center study on 388 patients. Neurosurgical review (2022). PMID: 36136255

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Special Populations
  50. [50]

    Léveillé E, Aljassar M, Beland B et al.. Determinants of hyponatremia following a traumatic brain injury. Neurological sciences : official journal of the Italian Neurological Society and of the Italian Society of Clinical Neurophysiology (2022). PMID: 35037099

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Differential Diagnosis
  51. [51]

    Chang MT, Jitaroon K, Song S et al.. Venous thromboembolism rates and risk factors following endoscopic skull base surgery. International forum of allergy & rhinology (2022). PMID: 34894093

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Etiology, Special Populations
  52. [52]

    Kennedy GT, Sande CM, Surrey LF et al.. Anterior Mediastinal Neuroblastoma Associated with Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone Secretion: A Morphologic, Immunohistochemical, and Genetic Case Report and Review of the Literature. International journal of surgical pathology (2022). PMID: 35188820

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  53. [53]

    Pinkhasov A, Xiong G, Bourgeois JA et al.. Management of SIADH-related hyponatremia due to psychotropic medications - An expert consensus from the Association of Medicine and Psychiatry. Journal of psychosomatic research (2021). PMID: 34739943

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Etiology
  54. [54]

    Coupaye M, Pellikaan K, Goldstone AP et al.. Hyponatremia in Children and Adults with Prader-Willi Syndrome: A Survey Involving Seven Countries. Journal of clinical medicine (2021). PMID: 34441851

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  55. [55]

    Sorba EL, Staartjes VE, Voglis S et al.. Diabetes insipidus and syndrome of inappropriate antidiuresis (SIADH) after pituitary surgery: incidence and risk factors. Neurosurgical review (2021). PMID: 32583307

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  56. [56]

    Wu R, Li C, Wang Z et al.. A narrative review of progress in diagnosis and treatment of small cell lung cancer patients with hyponatremia. Translational lung cancer research (2020). PMID: 33489807

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  57. [57]

    Bao S, Qin L, Zhang Y et al.. Refractory hyponatremia in small cell lung cancer: a case report and literature review. Frontiers in endocrinology (2026). PMID: 41890180

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Etiology, Management
  58. [58]

    Ren P, Yang Q. The role of tolvaptan in managing hyponatremia in small cell lung cancer patients with SIADH: a retrospective study of 23 cases. Translational cancer research (2021). PMID: 35116450

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Etiology, Complications and Prognosis
  59. [59]

    Mannheimer B, Lindh JD, Fahlén CB et al.. Drug-induced hyponatremia in clinical care. European journal of internal medicine (2025). PMID: 40328519

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Etiology
  60. [60]

    Rosner MH, Rondon-Berrios H, Sterns RH. Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuresis. Journal of the American Society of Nephrology : JASN (2025). PMID: 39621420

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Etiology, Clinical Features, Management
  61. [61]

    Tao S, Guo S, Tong N. Update on the clinical applications of SGLTis: Insight to benefits beyond hypoglycemic and cardiorenal protection. Pharmacotherapy (2024). PMID: 38973479

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Etiology
  62. [62]

    Warren AM, Grossmann M, Christ-Crain M et al.. Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuresis: From Pathophysiology to Management. Endocrine reviews (2023). PMID: 36974717

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Etiology, Differential Diagnosis
  63. [63]

    Kim GH. Pathophysiology of Drug-Induced Hyponatremia. Journal of clinical medicine (2022). PMID: 36233678

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Etiology, Pathophysiology
  64. [64]

    Noda Y, Sasaki S. Updates and Perspectives on Aquaporin-2 and Water Balance Disorders. International journal of molecular sciences (2021). PMID: 34884753

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Etiology, Pathophysiology
  65. [65]

    Jiang Z, Qu X, Yan Z et al.. Case Report: Severe SIADH and QTc prolongation induced by escitalopram-quetiapine interaction in a CYP2C19 intermediate metabolizer at therapeutic doses. Frontiers in pharmacology (2026). PMID: 41693783

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Etiology
  66. [66]

    Menzi S, Jaramillo SD, Pfister S et al.. Case report: Secondary failure to tolvaptan in a patient with SCLC and paraneoplastic SIADH. Frontiers in endocrinology (2024). PMID: 38803472

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Etiology, Pathophysiology, Laboratory Workup and Imaging, Management
  67. [67]

    Takenouchi H, Anno T, Kimura Y et al.. Case Report: A Patient With Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome, Water Intoxication and Hyponatremia Associated With Severe Cerebral Edema and Coma. Frontiers in endocrinology (2022). PMID: 35360072

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Etiology, Differential Diagnosis
  68. [68]

    Saffarzadeh M, Alim BM, Hernaiz-Leonardo JC et al.. Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone Release Secondary to Ectopic Olfactory Neuroblastoma: Case Report and Review of Literature. Ear, nose, & throat journal (2025). PMID: 37776288

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Etiology, Special Populations
  69. [69]

    Haymann JP. Drug-induced syndrome of inappropriate diuresis or of antidiuretic hormone secretion? Annales d'endocrinologie (2023). PMID: 36965851

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Etiology, Pathophysiology
  70. [70]

    Mo H, Channa Y, Ferrara TM et al.. Hyponatremia Associated with the Use of Common Antidepressants in the All of Us Research Program. Clinical pharmacology and therapeutics (2025). PMID: 39540435

    L5OTHERCited in: Etiology
  71. [71]

    Li X, Xu T, Jian X. Advanced small cell lung cancer with severe hyponatremia: a case report and literature review. Frontiers in oncology (2025). PMID: 41018077

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Etiology, Clinical Features, Management
  72. [72]

    Sato A, Yasui-Furukori N, Oda Y et al.. Asymptomatic syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone (SIADH) following duloxetine treatment for pain with depression: Two case reports. Neuropsychopharmacology reports (2022). PMID: 35733329

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Etiology
  73. [73]

    Ayoola A, Sodji QH, Chin S et al.. Syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone following high dose rate brachytherapy for prostate cancer: a case report. BMC urology (2022). PMID: 35272646

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Etiology
  74. [74]

    Kacperczyk J, Perdyan A, Stompór M. Drug-Resistant Hyponatremia after Escitalopram Intake: A Series of Two Case Reports. Annals of geriatric medicine and research (2021). PMID: 34610667

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Etiology
  75. [75]

    Saillant A, Try M, Laparra A et al.. [Electrolyte disorders in oncological patients]. Bulletin du cancer (2024). PMID: 37208250

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Etiology
  76. [76]

    Poch E, Molina A, Piñeiro G. Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion. Medicina clinica (2022). PMID: 35659417

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Etiology, Diagnostic Criteria
  77. [77]

    Bathula S, Pasupuleti H, Waqar A et al.. Escaped surveillance: tuberculosis masked by severe hyponatremia in an immunocompromised patient: a case report. Journal of medical case reports (2026). PMID: 41882752

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Etiology, Clinical Features
  78. [78]

    Rupasinghe S, Lemoh C. Post-traumatic cerebral venous sinus thrombosis complicated with syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion: a case report. Journal of medical case reports (2025). PMID: 40091110

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Etiology, Differential Diagnosis
  79. [79]

    Warren AM, Grossmann M, Hoermann R et al.. Tolvaptan vs Fluid Restriction in Moderate-Profound Hyponatremia: An Open-Label Randomized Clinical Trial. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2026). PMID: 40720585

    L1bRCTCited in: Pathophysiology, Clinical Features, Management, Complications and Prognosis
  80. [80]

    Kaur K, Venkatachalapathi S, Mumtaz M et al.. Decoding Hyponatremia: A Systematic Review of Diagnostic Pathways and Therapeutic Approaches Applied When Correction Fails. Cureus (2025). PMID: 41357015

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Pathophysiology, Management
  81. [81]

    Kamran N, Mohammad M. SGLT2 Inhibitors as a Novel Therapeutic Strategy in SIADH-Induced Hyponatraemia: Emerging Evidence and Clinical Implications. Journal of clinical medicine (2026). PMID: 41899044

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology, Management
  82. [82]

    Moodley N. Copeptin analysis in endocrine disorders. Frontiers in endocrinology (2023). PMID: 37859988

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology, Laboratory Workup and Imaging, Differential Diagnosis
  83. [83]

    Koundal H, Dhandapani M, Thakur P et al.. Effectiveness of dietary diabetes insipidus bundle on the severity of postoperative fluid imbalance in pituitary region tumours: A randomized controlled trial. Journal of advanced nursing (2021). PMID: 34028859

    L1bRCTCited in: Pathophysiology, Special Populations
  84. [84]

    Driano JE, Lteif AN, Creo AL. Vasopressin-Dependent Disorders: What Is New in Children? Pediatrics (2021). PMID: 33795481

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology, Laboratory Workup and Imaging, Special Populations
  85. [85]

    Castle-Kirszbaum M, Kyi M, Wright C et al.. Hyponatraemia and hypernatraemia: Disorders of Water Balance in Neurosurgery. Neurosurgical review (2021). PMID: 33389341

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology, Laboratory Workup and Imaging, Complications and Prognosis
  86. [86]

    Seay NW, Lehrich RW, Greenberg A. Diagnosis and Management of Disorders of Body Tonicity-Hyponatremia and Hypernatremia: Core Curriculum 2020. American journal of kidney diseases : the official journal of the National Kidney Foundation (2020). PMID: 31606238

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology
  87. [87]

    Sasidharan Pillai S, Boxerman JL, Groblewski JC et al.. An adolescent girl with syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion preceding the diagnosis of olfactory neuroblastoma - a case report. Frontiers in endocrinology (2024). PMID: 39479268

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Pathophysiology, Clinical Features, Management
  88. [88]

    Jones B, Corredor M, Lteif A et al.. Use of Copeptin Levels to Predict the Resolution of Transient Postoperative SIADH. Hormone research in paediatrics (2020). PMID: 32998133

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Pathophysiology, Laboratory Workup and Imaging, Special Populations
  89. [89]

    Li L, Guo Y, Chen C et al.. Mechanisms of hyponatremia and diabetes insipidus after acute spinal cord injury: a critical review. Chinese neurosurgical journal (2023). PMID: 37968769

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology, Clinical Features, Differential Diagnosis
  90. [90]

    Praharaj DL, Anand AC. Clinical Implications, Evaluation, and Management of Hyponatremia in Cirrhosis. Journal of clinical and experimental hepatology (2022). PMID: 35535075

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology, Laboratory Workup and Imaging
  91. [91]

    Misra UK, Kalita J. Mechanism, spectrum, consequences and management of hyponatremia in tuberculous meningitis. Wellcome open research (2019). PMID: 32734004

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology, Diagnostic Criteria, Laboratory Workup and Imaging
  92. [92]

    Bogusz-Wójcik A, Rakusiewicz-Krasnodębska K, Hautz W et al.. Correlation Between Endocrine and Other Clinical Factors with Peripapillary Retinal Nerve Fiber Layer Thickness After Surgical Treatment of Pediatric Craniopharyngioma. Biomedicines (2026). PMID: 41595773

    L5OTHERCited in: Pathophysiology, Special Populations
  93. [93]

    Desai S, Holsaeter K, Winski A et al.. Safety and Efficacy of Tolvaptan for Acute Refractive Hyponatremia Associated with Traumatic Brain Injury. Journal of clinical medicine (2025). PMID: 40943898

    L5OTHERCited in: Pathophysiology, Management, Complications and Prognosis
  94. [94]

    Gibbons J, Dreimane D. The Utility of Copeptin Measurement in Hospitalized Pediatric Patients with Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Secretion. Hormone research in paediatrics (2025). PMID: 40544834

    L5OTHERCited in: Pathophysiology, Laboratory Workup and Imaging
  95. [95]

    Estephan K, Charbonneau L, Chennou F et al.. The surgical management of Cushing disease: a case series from a Canadian tertiary center. Neurological research (2025). PMID: 41433699

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Pathophysiology
  96. [96]

    Dong C, Zhu B, Miao G et al.. Case Report: One case of pregnancy complicated by large cell neuroendocrine carcinoma of the cervix with syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone. Frontiers in oncology (2025). PMID: 41395606

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Pathophysiology, Management, Complications and Prognosis
  97. [97]

    Johnson RJ, Lee SMK, Sánchez-Lozada LG et al.. Fructose: A New Variable to Consider in SIADH and the Hyponatremia Associated With Long-Distance Running? American journal of kidney diseases : the official journal of the National Kidney Foundation (2023). PMID: 36940740

    L5OTHERCited in: Pathophysiology, Complications and Prognosis, Special Populations
  98. [98]

    Zhang D, Yong W, Movassaghi M et al.. Whole Exome Sequencing Identifies PHF14 Mutations in Neurocytoma and Predicts Responsivity to the PDGFR Inhibitor Sunitinib. Biomedicines (2022). PMID: 36359362

    L5OTHERCited in: Pathophysiology
  99. [99]

    Hussein Z, Tzoulis P, Marcus HJ et al.. The management and outcome of hyponatraemia following transsphenoidal surgery: a retrospective observational study. Acta neurochirurgica (2022). PMID: 35079890

    L5OTHERCited in: Pathophysiology, Special Populations
  100. [100]

    Puma A, Brugnara M, Cavarzere P et al.. Case Report: Long-Term Tolvaptan Treatment in a Child With SIADH and Suprasellar Arachnoid Cyst. Frontiers in pediatrics (2021). PMID: 34336740

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Pathophysiology
  101. [101]

    Hiroshima S, Nyuzuki H, Sasaki S et al.. Regulation of Serum Sodium Levels during Chemotherapy Using Selective Arginine Vasopressin V2-Receptor Antagonist Tolvaptan in a Four-Year-Old Girl with a Suprasellar Germ Cell Tumor. Children (Basel, Switzerland) (2021). PMID: 33920088

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Pathophysiology
  102. [102]

    Verrienti M, Marino Picciola V, Ambrosio MR et al.. Pituitary and COVID-19 vaccination: a systematic review. Pituitary (2024). PMID: 38761322

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Clinical Features
  103. [103]

    Chen KQ, Liu X, Lei HB. Case Report: Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion induced by pramipexole: a case report and literature review. Frontiers in pharmacology (2025). PMID: 40894224

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Clinical Features
  104. [104]

    McCoin N, Marcum S, Martin J. Case report: Hyponatremia due to syndrome of inappropriate antidiuresis associated with normal pressure hydrocephalus. The American journal of emergency medicine (2025). PMID: 40187989

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Clinical Features
  105. [105]

    Lee S, Seo HW, Lee J et al.. Unusual Presentation of Hyponatremia: Persistent Hiccups. Electrolyte & blood pressure : E & BP (2025). PMID: 41541563

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Clinical Features, Differential Diagnosis, Management
  106. [106]

    Żak-Skryśkiewicz Z, Krupińska P, Bieńkowski C et al.. Hyponatremia Due to VZV-Induced SIADH in an Older Patient: Case Report and Literature Review. Infectious disease reports (2025). PMID: 40981326

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Clinical Features
  107. [107]

    Spasovski G. Hyponatraemia-treatment standard 2024. Nephrology, dialysis, transplantation : official publication of the European Dialysis and Transplant Association - European Renal Association (2024). PMID: 39009016

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Clinical Features, Management, Complications and Prognosis
  108. [108]

    Sasaki T, Shindo Y, Kikuchi K et al.. Vortioxetine-induced syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone: A case report. Neuropsychopharmacology reports (2024). PMID: 38588007

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Clinical Features
  109. [109]

    Tzoulis P, Yavropoulou MP. Association of hyponatremia with bone mineral density and fractures: a narrative review. Therapeutic advances in endocrinology and metabolism (2023). PMID: 37736657

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Clinical Features
  110. [110]

    Than Aye T, Sein MT, Thiha P et al.. Changes in Urinary Aquaporin 2 and Serum Sodium After Catheterization in Elderly Patients with Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone and Urinary Retention: A Preliminary Hospital-based Study in Yangon, Myanmar. TouchREVIEWS in endocrinology (2025). PMID: 40485652

    L5OTHERCited in: Clinical Features, Management
  111. [111]

    Soga K, Suzuki Y, Hayakawa F et al.. Recurrent Severe Hyponatremia Following Polyethylene Glycol Electrolyte Lavage Solution with Ascorbic Acid in a Patient with Undiagnosed Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone Secretion. The American journal of case reports (2025). PMID: 40760784

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Clinical Features
  112. [112]

    Lauzon I, deGuerké L, Fortin S et al.. Small cell carcinoma of the cervix with syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion following chemotherapy: A case report and literature review. Gynecologic oncology reports (2025). PMID: 40092736

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Clinical Features, Differential Diagnosis
  113. [113]

    Arieff AI, Gabbai R, Goldfine ID. Cerebral Salt-Wasting Syndrome: Diagnosis by Urine Sodium Excretion. The American journal of the medical sciences (2017). PMID: 29078838

    L2bTRIAL_NONRANDOMCited in: Diagnostic Criteria
  114. [114]

    James V, Nimkoff L. Multiphase management of sodium imbalance following traumatic brain injury: a case-based review. BMC pediatrics (2025). PMID: 40730974

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Diagnostic Criteria
  115. [115]

    Bardanzellu F, Pintus MC, Masile V et al.. Focus on neonatal and infantile onset of nephrogenic syndrome of inappropriate antidiuresis: 12 years later. Pediatric nephrology (Berlin, Germany) (2019). PMID: 29546600

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Diagnostic Criteria
  116. [116]

    Tuli G, Tessaris D, Einaudi S et al.. Tolvaptan Treatment in Children with Chronic Hyponatremia due to Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone Secretion: A Report of Three Cases. Journal of clinical research in pediatric endocrinology (2017). PMID: 28515029

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Diagnostic Criteria
  117. [117]

    Saraceno E, Serra I, Bracci B et al.. SIADH as an Underrecognized Manifestation of Porphyria-like Crises in Hereditary Tyrosinemia Type 1: Clinical and Pathophysiological Insights. International journal of molecular sciences (2026). PMID: 41596311

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Diagnostic Criteria, Laboratory Workup and Imaging
  118. [118]

    Sekhon SS, Taha K, Kim LH et al.. A Pediatric Case of Reninoma Presenting with Paraneoplastic Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone Secretion. Hormone research in paediatrics (2024). PMID: 38052189

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Diagnostic Criteria
  119. [119]

    Takano M, Okada T, Kobayashi T et al.. Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion induced by suvorexant: a case report. Journal of clinical sleep medicine : JCSM : official publication of the American Academy of Sleep Medicine (2021). PMID: 33141013

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Diagnostic Criteria
  120. [120]

    Babayev R, Terner S, Chandra S et al.. Trimethoprim-associated hyponatremia. American journal of kidney diseases : the official journal of the National Kidney Foundation (2013). PMID: 23891358

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Diagnostic Criteria
  121. [121]

    Kawahara T, Toda M, Kanagawa M et al.. Etiology and Clinical Features of Patients With Hyponatremia in the Emergency Department: A Cross-sectional Study. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2025). PMID: 40130271

    L5OTHERCited in: Diagnostic Criteria, Laboratory Workup and Imaging, Differential Diagnosis
  122. [122]

    Decaux G, Musch W. The Urine Calcium/Creatinine Ratio and Uricemia during Hyponatremia of Different Origins: Clinical Implications. Journal of clinical medicine (2023). PMID: 36675652

    L5OTHERCited in: Diagnostic Criteria, Laboratory Workup and Imaging, Differential Diagnosis
  123. [123]

    Fenske W, Allolio B. The syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone: diagnostic and therapeutic advances. Hormone and metabolic research = Hormon- und Stoffwechselforschung = Hormones et metabolisme (2010). PMID: 20607641

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Diagnostic Criteria
  124. [124]

    Ausiello JC, Bruce JN, Freda PU. Postoperative assessment of the patient after transsphenoidal pituitary surgery. Pituitary (2008). PMID: 18320327

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Diagnostic Criteria
  125. [125]

    Fenske W, Störk S, Koschker AC et al.. Value of fractional uric acid excretion in differential diagnosis of hyponatremic patients on diuretics. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2008). PMID: 18477658

    L5OTHERCited in: Diagnostic Criteria
  126. [126]

    Siegel AJ, Verbalis JG, Clement S et al.. Hyponatremia in marathon runners due to inappropriate arginine vasopressin secretion. The American journal of medicine (2007). PMID: 17466660

    L5OTHERCited in: Diagnostic Criteria
  127. [127]

    Siegel AJ. Hypertonic (3%) sodium chloride for emergent treatment of exercise-associated hypotonic encephalopathy. Sports medicine (Auckland, N.Z.) (2007). PMID: 17465635

    L5OTHERCited in: Diagnostic Criteria
  128. [128]

    Hiramatsu R, Takeshita A, Taguchi M et al.. Symptomatic hyponatremia after voluntary excessive water ingestion in a patient without psychiatric problems. Endocrine journal (2007). PMID: 17641442

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Diagnostic Criteria
  129. [129]

    Tamura T, Taniguchi N, Otsuki K et al.. [A Case of Consciousness Disorder Induced by the Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone Secretion Following Cisplatin and 5-Fluorouracil Chemotherapy in a Patient with Tongue Cancer]. Gan to kagaku ryoho. Cancer & chemotherapy (2018). PMID: 30026451

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Diagnostic Criteria
  130. [130]

    Seay HL, Khallouf L, Lieberman A et al.. An Unusual Case of Neurosyphilis Manifesting as Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone Secretion (SIADH). The American journal of case reports (2021). PMID: 33589580

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Diagnostic Criteria
  131. [131]

    Karakuchi N, Ohmori I, Inoue M et al.. Inappropriate Secretion of Antidiuretic Hormone after Pancreatoduodenectomy for Pancreatic Head Cancer: A Case Report and Literature Review. Case reports in oncology (2021). PMID: 33776694

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Diagnostic Criteria
  132. [132]

    Al-Hinai A, Al-Murshedi F, Al-Nabhani D et al.. Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone Secretion in a Patient with Uncontrolled Tyrosinaemia Type 1. Sultan Qaboos University medical journal (2021). PMID: 34221482

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Diagnostic Criteria
  133. [133]

    Kang SG, Choi SH, Kim HY et al.. Low-dose Quetiapine-induced Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone in a Patient with Traumatic Brain Syndrome. Clinical psychopharmacology and neuroscience : the official scientific journal of the Korean College of Neuropsychopharmacology (2020). PMID: 31958918

    L5OTHERCited in: Diagnostic Criteria
  134. [134]

    Kleindienst A, Georgiev S, Schlaffer SM et al.. Tolvaptan Versus Fluid Restriction in the Treatment of Hyponatremia Resulting from SIADH Following Pituitary Surgery. Journal of the Endocrine Society (2020). PMID: 32666012

    L5OTHERCited in: Diagnostic Criteria
  135. [135]

    Patil SM, Beck PP, Patel TP et al.. Cytomegalovirus pneumonitis-induced secondary hemophagocytic lymphohistiocytosis and SIADH in an immunocompetent elderly male literature review. IDCases (2020). PMID: 33024698

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Diagnostic Criteria
  136. [136]

    Assadi F. Diagnostic Utility of Fractional Excretion of Urate, Urinary Phosphate and Brain Natriuretic Peptide in Distinguishing Cerebral/Renal Salt Wasting From SIADH in Neurologically Ill Children: A Systematic Review. Clinical endocrinology (2026). PMID: 41058069

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Laboratory Workup and Imaging
  137. [137]

    Berend K, Heldeweg MLA. The role of the clinical laboratory in diagnosing hyponatremia disorders. Critical reviews in clinical laboratory sciences (2025). PMID: 40022565

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Laboratory Workup and Imaging, Differential Diagnosis
  138. [138]

    Gadoth A, Nisnboym M, Alcalay Y et al.. Electrolyte Imbalance in Anti-LGI1 Encephalitis: It Is Not All in Your Head. Neurology(R) neuroimmunology & neuroinflammation (2023). PMID: 37591767

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Laboratory Workup and Imaging
  139. [139]

    Lindner G, Ryser B. The syndrome of inappropriate antidiuresis after vaccination against COVID-19: case report. BMC infectious diseases (2021). PMID: 34560836

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Laboratory Workup and Imaging
  140. [140]

    Yang F, Cao Z, Wang X et al.. A multi-parameter study of the etiological diagnosis of hyponatremia after hypothalamic tumor surgery. Clinical neurology and neurosurgery (2021). PMID: 34715556

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Laboratory Workup and Imaging, Special Populations
  141. [141]

    Săcărescu A, Turliuc MD, Brănișteanu DD. Role of copeptin in the diagnosis of traumatic neuroendocrine dysfunction. Neuropeptides (2021). PMID: 34175655

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Laboratory Workup and Imaging
  142. [142]

    Douglas A, Baborie A. Inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Clinical neuropathology (2020). PMID: 32449677

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Laboratory Workup and Imaging, Special Populations
  143. [143]

    Li N, Zhang H, Wang S et al.. Urea transporter UT-A1 as a novel drug target for hyponatremia. FASEB journal : official publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology (2024). PMID: 38924449

    L5OTHERCited in: Laboratory Workup and Imaging, Management
  144. [144]

    Adin DB, Levinzon I, Harris AN. Long-term Outcome of a Chihuahua With Idiopathic Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone Secretion. Journal of the American Animal Hospital Association (2024). PMID: 39480739

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Laboratory Workup and Imaging, Differential Diagnosis
  145. [145]

    Potasso L, Monnerat S, Refardt J et al.. Chloride and Potassium Assessment Is a Helpful Tool for Differential Diagnosis of Thiazide-Associated Hyponatremia. The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2023). PMID: 36899489

    L5OTHERCited in: Laboratory Workup and Imaging, Differential Diagnosis
  146. [146]

    Moon RJ, Soliman M, Hoogenboom L et al.. Syndrome of inappropriate secretion of anti-diuretic hormone due to hypothalamic hamartoma: use of tolvaptan. Journal of pediatric endocrinology & metabolism : JPEM (2023). PMID: 37327191

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Laboratory Workup and Imaging
  147. [147]

    Oshima M, Fukuhara J, Noto T et al.. A Case of Kawasaki Disease Complicated With Cerebral Salt-Wasting Syndrome. Frontiers in pediatrics (2020). PMID: 32766177

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Laboratory Workup and Imaging
  148. [148]

    Vera-Cáceres CH, García-Huguet M, Gil de Genover A et al.. Dysautonomia after COVID-19 infection: A case report. Neurologia (2026). PMID: 41579008

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Laboratory Workup and Imaging
  149. [149]

    Švitek L, Grubišić B, Schonberger E et al.. Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion as an adverse reaction of ciprofloxacin: a case report and literature review. Biochemia medica (2024). PMID: 38125612

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Laboratory Workup and Imaging
  150. [150]

    Dong QW, Tang L, Ge DD et al.. A case of linezolid-induced SIADH in elderly and a review of the literature. European review for medical and pharmacological sciences (2022). PMID: 36066143

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Laboratory Workup and Imaging
  151. [151]

    Wu J, Yan Z, Li B et al.. Pituitary Apoplexy-associated Cerebral Salt Wasting Syndrome: A Case Report and Literature Review. Clinical therapeutics (2023). PMID: 37778916

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Differential Diagnosis
  152. [152]

    Imbriano LJ, Grant C, Masani N. The Different Paths That Lead to Hypotonic Hyponatremia, and a Safe Approach to Treatment. Journal of clinical medicine (2024). PMID: 39797178

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Differential Diagnosis
  153. [153]

    Busl KM, Rabinstein AA. Prevention and Correction of Dysnatremia After Aneurysmal Subarachnoid Hemorrhage. Neurocritical care (2023). PMID: 37138158

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Differential Diagnosis
  154. [154]

    Makino E, Hashimoto T, Sako A et al.. Comparison of severe hyponatremia in patients with and without psychiatric diseases: A single-center retrospective study. PCN reports : psychiatry and clinical neurosciences (2023). PMID: 38868403

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Differential Diagnosis, Complications and Prognosis
  155. [155]

    Netto AB, Chandrahasa N, Koshy SS et al.. Hyponatremia in Guillain-Barre Syndrome: A Review of Its Pathophysiology and Management. The Canadian journal of neurological sciences. Le journal canadien des sciences neurologiques (2025). PMID: 38361453

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Differential Diagnosis, Complications and Prognosis
  156. [156]

    Klimek M, de Smalen P, Janssen J. Hyperlactatemia and other perioperative metabolic disturbances in neuroanesthesia. Current opinion in anaesthesiology (2022). PMID: 35942723

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Differential Diagnosis
  157. [157]

    Naganuma J, Koyama S, Watabe Y et al.. A Boy with Reset Osmostat Who Developed Chronic Hyponatremia due to Hypothalamic Injury Caused By a Giant Arachnoid Cyst. Journal of clinical research in pediatric endocrinology (2024). PMID: 36794751

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Differential Diagnosis
  158. [158]

    Banerjee S, George A, Bala A et al.. Assessing the Role of Delta Copeptin in the Evaluation of SIAD and CSW. Indian journal of pediatrics (2026). PMID: 41563654

    L5OTHERCited in: Differential Diagnosis
  159. [159]

    Alvarado-Torres MT, España Arrieta H, Davidson JS et al.. Refractory hyponatremia solved through early cranioplasty after decompressive hemicraniectomy in a traumatic brain injury patient: a case report. Brain injury (2026). PMID: 41718483

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Differential Diagnosis
  160. [160]

    Yamichannaiah C, Sheth KV, Lila AR et al.. Management of water and electrolyte disorders post-pituitary adenoma surgery: experience with Tolvaptan 7.5 mg at a tertiary care centre. Pituitary (2025). PMID: 41148440

    L5OTHERCited in: Differential Diagnosis, Management
  161. [161]

    Perschinka F, Köglberger P, Klein SJ et al.. [Hyponatremia : Etiology, diagnosis and acute therapy]. Medizinische Klinik, Intensivmedizin und Notfallmedizin (2023). PMID: 37646802

    L5OTHERCited in: Differential Diagnosis
  162. [162]

    Kamel MH, Upadhyay A, Borkan SC. Intractable hyponatremia complicated by a reset osmostat: a case report. Journal of medical case reports (2023). PMID: 36639685

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Differential Diagnosis
  163. [163]

    Lewellyn D, Nuamek T, Ostarijas E et al.. Low-Dose Tolvaptan for the Treatment of Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuretic Hormone-Associated Hyponatremia: A Systematic Review, Meta-Analysis, and Meta-Regression Analysis of Clinical Effectiveness and Safety. Endocrine practice : official journal of the American College of Endocrinology and the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists (2025). PMID: 40288608

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Management, Complications and Prognosis
  164. [164]

    Llewellyn DC, Oštarijaš E, Sahadevan S et al.. Efficacy and Safety of Low-Dose Tolvaptan (7.5 mg) in the Treatment of Inpatient Hyponatremia: A Retrospective Study. Endocrine practice : official journal of the American College of Endocrinology and the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists (2025). PMID: 39733944

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Management, Complications and Prognosis
  165. [165]

    Hagiwara D, Matsukawa M, Tasaki J et al.. A retrospective study on tolvaptan prescription in clinical practice in patients with syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone (SIADH) using the Japanese claims database. Endocrine journal (2023). PMID: 37914256

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Management
  166. [166]

    Li J, Yang Z, Wang K et al.. Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion following extensively drug-resistant Klebsiella pneumoniae associated with complicated urinary tract infection: a case report. Frontiers in medicine (2025). PMID: 40636392

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Management
  167. [167]

    Martínez González Á, González Nunes M, Rodeiro Escobar P et al.. [Tolvaptan versus fluid restriction in the treatment of hyponatremia due to inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion: efficacy and safety analysis in a cohort study]. Nutricion hospitalaria (2025). PMID: 39873469

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Management, Complications and Prognosis
  168. [168]

    Basan H, Bilginer Gürbüz B, Gürbüz F et al.. Management of porphyria-like syndrome in tyrosinemia type 1. Journal of pediatric endocrinology & metabolism : JPEM (2026). PMID: 41711566

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Management
  169. [169]

    Gil Dos Santos S, Calheiros R, Oliveira J et al.. Urea for Treatment of SIAD Induced Hyponatremia: Experience of an Oncology Center. Clinical endocrinology (2026). PMID: 40993889

    L5OTHERCited in: Management
  170. [170]

    Akgül YSS, Cengiz BE, Akın S. Rapid-Onset SIADH Triggered by Combined Duloxetine and Levodopa Use in an Older Adult With Depression and Parkinsonism: A Previously Unreported Interaction. International journal of psychiatry in medicine (2026). PMID: 40859822

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Management
  171. [171]

    Courtney A, Joyce Tan LY, Elsheikh A et al.. Characteristics, management and outcomes of patients with hyponatraemia presenting to an Irish tertiary hospital. Endocrine connections (2025). PMID: 40029815

    L5OTHERCited in: Management
  172. [172]

    Uchiyama M, Inoue T, Kojima D et al.. Syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion in a patient with colon cancer using CAPOX plus bevacizumab therapy: a case report. Journal of pharmaceutical health care and sciences (2025). PMID: 40745570

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Management
  173. [173]

    Wendt R, Fenves AZ, Geisler BP. Use of Urea for the Syndrome of Inappropriate Secretion of Antidiuretic Hormone: A Systematic Review. JAMA network open (2023). PMID: 37902751

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Complications and Prognosis
  174. [174]

    Zamanipoor Najafabadi AH, van der Meulen M, Priego Zurita AL et al.. Starting point for benchmarking outcomes and reporting of pituitary adenoma surgery within the European Reference Network on Rare Endocrine Conditions (Endo-ERN): results from a meta-analysis and survey study. Endocrine connections (2023). PMID: 36327151

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Complications and Prognosis
  175. [175]

    Mezzini G, Marasco S, Bertuccio A et al.. Hyponatremia Related to Neurocritical Care: Focus on Diagnosis and Therapy: A Systematic Review. Reviews on recent clinical trials (2023). PMID: 36503463

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Complications and Prognosis
  176. [176]

    Mussarat A, Stielper Z, Hayden C et al.. Severe hyponatremia secondary to syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone (SIADH): A rare cause of takotsubo (stress) cardiomyopathy. The American journal of the medical sciences (2025). PMID: 39168409

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Complications and Prognosis
  177. [177]

    Martin-Grace J, Tomkins M, O'Reilly MW et al.. Approach to the Patient: Hyponatremia and the Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuresis (SIAD). The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2022). PMID: 35511757

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Complications and Prognosis
  178. [178]

    Koumpis E, Florentin M, Hatzimichael E et al.. Hyponatremia in Patients with Hematologic Diseases. Journal of clinical medicine (2020). PMID: 33228240

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Complications and Prognosis
  179. [179]

    Frara S, Allora A, Castellino L et al.. COVID-19 and the pituitary. Pituitary (2021). PMID: 33939057

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Complications and Prognosis
  180. [180]

    Pazos-Guerra M, Ruiz-Sánchez JG, Pérez-Candel X et al.. Inappropriate therapy of euvolemic hyponatremia, the most frequent type of hyponatremia in SARS-CoV-2 infection, is associated with increased mortality in COVID-19 patients. Frontiers in endocrinology (2023). PMID: 37560297

    L5OTHERCited in: Complications and Prognosis
  181. [181]

    Decaux G. Morbidity Associated with Chronic Hyponatremia. Journal of clinical medicine (2023). PMID: 36769626

    L5OTHERCited in: Complications and Prognosis
  182. [182]

    Yuen KCJ, Ajmal A, Correa R et al.. Sodium Perturbations After Pituitary Surgery. Neurosurgery clinics of North America (2019). PMID: 31471059

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Special Populations
  183. [183]

    Baig MU, Madden K, Moody K. Hyponatremia with Antidepressant: A Rare Side Effect from Duloxetine in a Child with Acute Leukemia. Journal of palliative medicine (2022). PMID: 35537479

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Special Populations
  184. [184]

    Sarikonda A, Rafi R, Schuessler C et al.. Smartphone Applications for Remote Monitoring of Patients After Transsphenoidal Pituitary Surgery: A Narrative Review of Emerging Technologies. World neurosurgery (2024). PMID: 39214293

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Special Populations
  185. [185]

    Kim J, Scott-Miller R. Anesthesia for Pituitary Surgery. Otolaryngologic clinics of North America (2022). PMID: 35365315

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Special Populations
  186. [186]

    Mercier JC, Titomanlio L, Basmaci R et al.. Risks of severe hyponatremia in children receiving hypotonic fluids. Archives de pediatrie : organe officiel de la Societe francaise de pediatrie (2020). PMID: 33028494

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Special Populations
  187. [187]

    Li C, Zhu H, Zong X et al.. Experience of trans-nasal endoscopic surgery for pituitary tumors in a single center in China: Surgical results in a cohort of 2032 patients, operated between 2006 and 2018. Clinical neurology and neurosurgery (2020). PMID: 32905978

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Special Populations
  188. [188]

    Moritz ML. Syndrome of Inappropriate Antidiuresis. Pediatric clinics of North America (2019). PMID: 30454744

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Special Populations
  189. [189]

    Constanthin PE, Isidor N, De Seigneux S et al.. Association between urinary oxytocin secretion and natriuresis after transsphenoidal pituitary surgery. Journal of neurosurgery (2023). PMID: 37209066

    L5OTHERCited in: Special Populations
  190. [190]

    Findlay MC, Drexler R, Khan M et al.. A Multicenter, Propensity Score-Matched Assessment of Endoscopic Versus Microscopic Approaches in the Management of Pituitary Adenomas. Neurosurgery (2023). PMID: 37057921

    L5OTHERCited in: Special Populations
  191. [191]

    Lopez DC, Almeida JP, Momin AA et al.. Triphasic response after endoscopic craniopharyngioma resection and its dependency on infundibular preservation or sacrifice. Journal of neurosurgery (2023). PMID: 36738460

    L5OTHERCited in: Special Populations
  192. [192]

    Snyder MH, Asuzu DT, Shaver DE et al.. Routine postoperative fluid restriction to prevent syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion after transsphenoidal resection of pituitary adenoma. Journal of neurosurgery (2022). PMID: 34330096

    L5OTHERCited in: Special Populations
  193. [193]

    Indirli R, Ferreira de Carvalho J, Cremaschi A et al.. Tolvaptan in the Management of Acute Euvolemic Hyponatremia After Transsphenoidal Surgery: A Retrospective Single-Center Analysis. Frontiers in endocrinology (2021). PMID: 34108941

    L5OTHERCited in: Special Populations
  194. [194]

    Spasovski G, Vanholder R, Allolio B et al.. Clinical practice guideline on diagnosis and treatment of hyponatraemia. European journal of endocrinology (2014). PMID: 24569125

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources
  195. [195]

    Spasovski G, Vanholder R, Allolio B et al.. Clinical practice guideline on diagnosis and treatment of hyponatraemia. Nephrology, dialysis, transplantation : official publication of the European Dialysis and Transplant Association - European Renal Association (2014). PMID: 24569496

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources
  196. [196]

    Bennett BL, Hew-Butler T, Hoffman MD et al.. Wilderness Medical Society practice guidelines for treatment of exercise-associated hyponatremia: 2014 update. Wilderness & environmental medicine (2014). PMID: 25498260

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources
  197. [197]

    Runkle I, Villabona C, Navarro A et al.. [The treament of hyponatremia secundary to the syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion]. Medicina clinica (2013). PMID: 24169317

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources
  198. [198]

    Bennett BL, Hew-Butler T, Hoffman MD et al.. Wilderness Medical Society practice guidelines for treatment of exercise-associated hyponatremia. Wilderness & environmental medicine (2013). PMID: 23590928

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources
  199. [199]

    Lamas C, del Pozo C, Villabona C. Clinical guidelines for management of diabetes insipidus and syndrome of inappropriate antidiuretic hormone secretion after pituitary surgery. Endocrinologia y nutricion : organo de la Sociedad Espanola de Endocrinologia y Nutricion (2014). PMID: 24588923

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources

Revision History

All updates applied to this page

Loading revisions…