Skip to main content
WoMWeb of Medicine
SearchGraphHistory
Neurology›Condition·Updated Apr 17, 2026·v1

Meningitis

Meningitis is a critical inflammatory condition of the CNS membranes requiring urgent diagnosis via CSF analysis and immediate empiric treatment with broad-spectrum antibiotics and corticosteroids. While viral forms are common and often benign, bacterial and tuberculous forms carry high mortality and require intensive management of intracranial pressure and systemic inflammation.

High Evidence268 references·10,014 words·41 min read·v1
NeurologyInfectious DiseaseEmergency MedicineCritical CarePediatrics

Quick Reference

RxDrug of choiceCeftriaxone 2 g IV q12h + Vancomycin 15-20 mg/kg IV q8-12h
AltAlternativesMeropenem 2 g IV q8h (for cephalosporin allergy or resistant Gram-negatives)
⊘AvoidDelaying antimicrobial therapy to obtain neuroimaging or lumbar puncture
DxTest of choiceCSF analysis via Lumbar Puncture (Cell count, Glucose, Protein, Gram stain, PCR)
ScKey scoreGlasgow Coma Scale (GCS) for severity; PECARN rule for febrile infants
→When to referGCS < 12, focal neurological deficits, evidence of hydrocephalus, or suspected brain abscess
Meningitis is a medical emergency; treat with empiric antibiotics and steroids immediately upon suspicion to prevent death and permanent disability.
Meningitis is a life-threatening inflammation of the leptomeninges (arachnoid and pia mater) and the surrounding cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) that constitutes a true medical emergency. It is characterized by a diverse etiology including bacterial, viral, fungal, and parasitic pathogens, as well as non-infectious triggers like medications and autoimmune diseases. Bacterial meningitis, primarily caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae and Neisseria meningitidis, carries a high case-fatality rate and a 30% risk of permanent neurological sequelae, such as sensorineural hearing loss. Management hinges on the rapid administration of empiric antimicrobial therapy—ideally within 60 minutes of presentation—and adjunctive corticosteroids to mitigate the host's inflammatory response. Because clinical signs like the classic triad of fever, neck stiffness, and altered mental status are often incomplete, a high index of suspicion and prompt CSF analysis are vital for survival and functional recovery.

Overview and Recommendations

Background

  • •Define meningitis as the acute or chronic inflammation of the protective membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord, specifically the leptomeninges. It is a critical global health challenge with significant geographic heterogeneity, such as the high burden seen in the African Meningitis Belt.
  • •Identify the primary infectious etiologies, which vary by age and risk factors: and dominate adult bacterial cases, while is the leading cause in neonates. Viral or 'aseptic' meningitis is most frequently caused by and is generally less severe but more common.
  • •Recognize the high morbidity associated with the condition, as more than 30% of survivors worldwide suffer from long-term neurological sequelae, including sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL), cognitive impairment, and seizure disorders.
  • •Distinguish between acute (hours to days) and chronic (more than 4 weeks) forms. Tuberculous meningitis (TBM) and cryptococcal meningitis often present subacutely and are major causes of mortality in immunocompromised populations, particularly those with HIV/AIDS.
  • •Consider non-infectious triggers such as drug-induced aseptic meningitis (DIAM)—often linked to NSAIDs or antibiotics—and systemic autoinflammatory diseases like (NPSLE) or GFAP astrocytopathy.

Evaluation

  • •Suspect meningitis in any patient presenting with fever, severe headache, and nuchal rigidity (neck stiffness), though be aware that this 'classic triad' is present in less than half of confirmed cases. In neonates, look for non-specific signs like irritability, poor feeding, bulging fontanelles, or hypothermia (Temperature ≤ 36.0°C).
  • •Perform a targeted physical exam for meningeal irritation using Kernig’s sign (resistance to knee extension with the hip flexed) and Brudzinski’s sign (involuntary hip flexion during passive neck flexion). Utilize the jolt accentuation of headache—increasing pain with rapid horizontal head rotation—as it is a highly sensitive sign for meningeal inflammation.
  • •Assess for 'red flags' that indicate high-risk complications, such as rapidly progressive purpura (suggestive of meningococcemia), focal neurological deficits, papilledema, or a Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score < 12.
  • •Order a non-contrast CT prior to performing a lumbar puncture (LP) only if specific contraindications are present: focal neurological deficits, new-onset seizures, papilledema, or known immunocompromise. Do not delay the first dose of antibiotics for imaging if an LP is deferred.
  • •Obtain blood cultures and a simultaneous serum glucose level immediately upon arrival. Blood cultures are positive in 50-80% of patients with bacterial meningitis and may provide a diagnosis if the LP is 'dry' or contraindicated.
  • •Perform a lumbar puncture to analyze cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) for opening pressure, cell count with differential, glucose, and protein. Typical bacterial findings include neutrophilic pleocytosis (>5 cells/μL), elevated protein, and a CSF/serum glucose ratio < 0.4.
  • •Utilize rapid molecular diagnostics such as the Meningitis/Encephalitis panel, which can identify 14 common pathogens via multiplex PCR within approximately one hour, significantly improving time-to-targeted-therapy.
  • •Evaluate for (TBM) in patients with subacute symptoms or high-risk backgrounds using CSF biomarkers (IFN-γ, IL-6) and molecular tools like CBNAAT or Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), which has a sensitivity of ~62.5% in pediatric populations.
  • •Screen for cryptococcal antigen (CrAg) in all HIV-positive patients with a CD4 count < 100 cells/μL, as high blood CrAg titers are strongly predictive of concurrent meningitis and increased mortality.
  • •Rule out mimics such as (via CT or presence of xanthochromia in CSF) and autoimmune encephalitis (via MRI findings like linear perivascular radial enhancement in GFAP astrocytopathy).

Management

  • •Administer empiric antimicrobial therapy within 60 minutes of patient arrival; every hour of delay is associated with increased mortality. For most adults, initiate Ceftriaxone 2 g IV every 12 hours and Vancomycin 15-20 mg/kg IV every 8-12 hours.
  • •Add Ampicillin 2 g IV every 4 hours to the empiric regimen for patients over age 50, pregnant individuals, or those with immunocompromise to provide coverage for Listeria monocytogenes.
  • •Administer adjunctive Dexamethasone 0.15 mg/kg IV every 6 hours (maximum 10 mg) starting 10-20 minutes before or concurrently with the first dose of antibiotics to reduce the risk of hearing loss and neurological sequelae in bacterial cases.
  • •Continue dexamethasone for 4 days in patients confirmed to have Streptococcus pneumoniae meningitis; discontinue if the pathogen is found to be viral or a different bacterium where steroid benefit is less clear.
  • •Manage (TBM) with a standard 4-drug regimen (Rifampin, Isoniazid, Pyrazinamide, and Ethambutol) plus adjunctive dexamethasone for 6-8 weeks. Consider high-dose Rifampin 35 mg/kg/day to improve CNS penetration, though its mortality benefit is still debated.
  • •Treat HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis using the AMBITION protocol: a single high dose of Liposomal Amphotericin B 10 mg/kg on Day 1, followed by 14 days of oral Flucytosine 100 mg/kg/day and Fluconazole 1200 mg/day.
  • •Monitor and manage increased intracranial pressure (ICP) using head elevation to 30 degrees and osmotic therapy (Mannitol 0.5-1.0 g/kg). Consider external ventricular drainage (EVD) for patients with refractory hypertension or symptomatic hydrocephalus.
  • •Implement seizure precautions and treat active seizures with benzodiazepines (e.g., Lorazepam 0.1 mg/kg IV), followed by maintenance anticonvulsants like Levetiracetam if cortical involvement is suspected.
  • •Provide post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) to close contacts of patients with N. meningitidis or H. influenzae type b using Ciprofloxacin 500 mg PO (single dose) or Rifampin 600 mg PO twice daily for 2 days.
  • •Perform formal audiological diagnostic testing at the time of discharge or within 4 weeks of recovery to detect sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL), as early intervention is critical for preventing cognitive decline.
  • •Avoid the use of adjunctive corticosteroids in HIV-positive adults with TBM, as trials have shown they may not provide the same survival benefit as seen in HIV-negative populations.
  • •Refer to neurosurgery immediately if imaging reveals a (complicating ~1.9% of bacterial cases) or if there is evidence of obstructive hydrocephalus requiring a shunt.

Board Review — High Yield

  • •Jolt accentuation — The most sensitive physical exam maneuver for identifying meningeal irritation (worsening headache with horizontal head rotation).
  • •CSF/Serum Glucose Ratio < 0.4 — A classic laboratory finding strongly suggestive of bacterial, fungal, or tuberculous meningitis over viral causes.
  • •Waterhouse-Friderichsen syndrome — Adrenal insufficiency caused by bilateral adrenal hemorrhage, a catastrophic complication of meningococcemia.
  • •LTA4H genotype — A genetic marker that predicts whether a patient with tuberculous meningitis will benefit from adjunctive corticosteroids.
  • •AMBITION-cm Trial — Validated a single high-dose of liposomal amphotericin B as part of an effective, less toxic induction regimen for cryptococcal meningitis.
  • •Sensorineural hearing loss — The most common long-term sequela of bacterial meningitis, necessitating audiological follow-up for all survivors.
  • •Dexamethasone timing — Must be given before or with the first dose of antibiotics to be effective in reducing inflammatory neurological damage.
  • •Enterovirus — The most common cause of 'aseptic' meningitis, typically presenting with a benign, self-limiting course.

Deep Dive — Evidence Details

References

  1. [1]

    Håndstad M, Alaoui-Ismaili A, Juhler M et al.. “A systematic review of reviews on ventriculostomy related infection definitions: A fundamental problem.” Neurosurgical review (2025). PMID: 40069523 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  2. [2]

    Vaezipour N, Bigi S, Song R et al.. “Rifampicin and its neuroprotective properties in humans - A systematic review.” Biomedicine & pharmacotherapy = Biomedecine & pharmacotherapie (2025). PMID: 40024057 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  3. [3]

    Taweephol T, Pongpitakmetha T, Boonwan N et al.. “Clinical characteristics and factors associated with tuberculous meningitis outcomes in Thailand: A 13-year retrospective cohort study.” International journal of infectious diseases : IJID : official publication of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (2025). PMID: 41173203 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification, Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes, Special Populations
  4. [4]

    Kane Y, Nalikka B, Tendu A et al.. “Genetic Diversity and Geographic Spread of Henipaviruses.” Emerging infectious diseases (2025). PMID: 40023785 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  5. [5]

    Long B, Gottlieb M. “Emergency medicine updates: Evaluation and diagnosis of sepsis and septic shock.” The American journal of emergency medicine (2025). PMID: 39892181 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  6. [6]

    Sultana S, Islam A, Ng J et al.. “Bat Reovirus as Cause of Acute Respiratory Disease and Encephalitis in Humans, Bangladesh, 2022-2023.” Emerging infectious diseases (2025). PMID: 41490742 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  7. [7]

    Vernygora O, Bourque L, Jones M et al.. “Novel Dolphin Tupavirus from Stranded Atlantic White-Sided Dolphin with Severe Encephalitis, Canada, 2024.” Emerging infectious diseases (2025). PMID: 41379633 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  8. [8]

    Zhu Z, Bao Y, Zhang Z et al.. “Emerging Neisseria meningitidis ST-1466 and ST-11026 as urogenital pathogens in China.” BMC infectious diseases (2025). PMID: 41162927 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  9. [9]

    Gass JT, Nofchissey RA, Twohig FM et al.. “Discovery of a novel lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus strain associated with severe human disease in immunocompetent patient, New Mexico.” Emerging microbes & infections (2025). PMID: 40838561 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification, Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  10. [10]

    Neri A, Taviani E, Ferraro F et al.. “Genomic analysis of Neisseria meningitidis serogroup W causing invasive meningococcal disease in four travellers from Saudi Arabia, Italy, 2025.” Euro surveillance : bulletin Europeen sur les maladies transmissibles = European communicable disease bulletin (2025). PMID: 40776895 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  11. [11]

    Cherabuddi K, Tagliamonte MS, Lednicky JA et al.. “A Case Cluster of Aseptic Meningitis Associated With a Newly Identified Recombinant Echovirus 6/Coxsackievirus B1 Enterovirus.” The Journal of infectious diseases (2025). PMID: 40359283 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  12. [12]

    Garijo-Toledo M, Alarcón-Elbal PM, Montero E et al.. “Mortality associated with Angiostrongylus cantonensis in non-human primates in Europe.” International journal for parasitology (2025). PMID: 40194692 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  13. [13]

    Jiang Y, Yang J, Liu Y et al.. “A neonate with meningitis caused by probiotic-related Clostridium butyricum.” International journal of infectious diseases : IJID : official publication of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (2025). PMID: 40185197 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  14. [14]

    Ewing A, Haldeman S, Job MJ et al.. “Haemophilus influenzae Type b Meningitis in Infants, New York, New York, USA, 2022-2023.” Emerging infectious diseases (2025). PMID: 40023813 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  15. [15]

    Chiu CY, Godasi RR, Hughes HR et al.. “Two Human Cases of Fatal Meningoencephalitis Associated with Potosi and Lone Star Virus Infections, United States, 2020-2023.” Emerging infectious diseases (2025). PMID: 39983710 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  16. [16]

    Leiva-Ordoñez JE, Quintero B. “Diagnosis of Tuberculous Meningitis: Integrating Clinical Assessment and Molecular Diagnostics.” Diagnostics (Basel, Switzerland) (2026). PMID: 41750700 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  17. [17]

    Trejos Pino JV, Rodriguez Delgado JC. “Clinical Presentations and Nosocomial Infections of Neurolisteriosis.” The Canadian journal of infectious diseases & medical microbiology = Journal canadien des maladies infectieuses et de la microbiologie medicale (2025). PMID: 40547324 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  18. [18]

    Ciftci E, Ocal D, Somer A et al.. “Current methods in the diagnosis of invasive meningococcal disease.” Frontiers in pediatrics (2025). PMID: 40330073 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  19. [19]

    Scheier TC, Tufa TB, Feldt T et al.. “Standard of care in advanced HIV disease: review of HIV treatment guidelines in sub-Saharan African countries-an extension study of eight countries.” AIDS research and therapy (2025). PMID: 40158188 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  20. [20]

    Zhu W, Shao L, Feng S et al.. “Tahyna virus: an emerging threat to public health.” Archives of virology (2025). PMID: 39928175 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  21. [21]

    Wu LL, Shi WD, Peng WF et al.. “Unraveling the interplay between meningitis and mitochondria: Etiology, pathogenesis, and therapeutic insights.” International immunopharmacology (2025). PMID: 39765004 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  22. [22]

    Kneubehl AR, Rehm DP, Curtis MW et al.. “Geographically Distinct Circulation of Genotype II and III St. Louis Encephalitis Virus, Texas, USA, 2009-2024.” Emerging infectious diseases (2026). PMID: 41986946 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  23. [23]

    Andrus PS, Han QC, Yang LM et al.. “Population genetic diversity of invasive Pomacea snails and surveillance of Angiostrongylus cantonensis in Shanghai, East China.” Parasites & vectors (2026). PMID: 41803893 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  24. [24]

    Yang H, Wang H, Han J et al.. “Emergence of a novel cefotaxime- and ciprofloxacin-resistant strain of serogroup Y Neisseria meningitidis sequence type 23 clonal complex in China.” The Journal of infection (2026). PMID: 41724334 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  25. [25]

    Gonzales BE, Durand D, Mercado EH et al.. “Genomic features of pneumococcal strains isolated from paediatric patients with invasive disease during pneumococcal conjugate vaccine introduction in Lima, Peru.” Microbial genomics (2026). PMID: 41632608 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  26. [26]

    Itani TM, Chalapa VI, Patrusheva AK et al.. “Genetic Diversity of the Non-Polio Enteroviruses Detected in Samples of Patients with Aseptic Meningitis in the Ural Federal District and Western Siberia.” Viruses (2026). PMID: 41600882 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  27. [27]

    Aparicio MT, Diop S, Mounier R. “Comments on: risk factors for nosocomial meningitis in patients with external ventricular drainages.” Journal of intensive care (2026). PMID: 41588552 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  28. [28]

    Andersen M, Haglund A, Murra M et al.. “Validation of the ICD-10 Diagnoses of Early-Onset Neonatal Infection in the Danish National Patient Register from 2010 to 2018.” Clinical epidemiology (2026). PMID: 41541820 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  29. [29]

    Fratty IS, Kriger O, Weiss L et al.. “Epidemiology of Enteroviruses Among Hospitalized Patients in Israel (2016-2024): CNS Involvement, Subtype Variability, and Seasonality.” Journal of medical virology (2026). PMID: 41540956 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  30. [30]

    Liao H, Li M, Zeng L et al.. “Molecular characterization of Neisseria meningitidis isolates from healthy individuals in Meigu County, Sichuan Province, 2021-2024.” European journal of clinical microbiology & infectious diseases : official publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology (2026). PMID: 41518555 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification
  31. [31]

    Pu J, Wu S, He JQ. “High dose of rifampicin in the treatment of tuberculous meningitis: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials.” European journal of clinical microbiology & infectious diseases : official publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology (2026). PMID: 41511673 ↗

    L1aSR_MA_RCTCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Management, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes, Landmark Trials and Key Evidence
  32. [32]

    Matmat K, Jamann H, Maazouzi A et al.. “A multidimensional analysis of neuropsychiatric lupus: clinical, biological and imaging insights from systematic evidence.” Frontiers in immunology (2026). PMID: 41918728 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Diagnosis and Workup
  33. [33]

    Alviz LF, Kim CY, Monette LE et al.. “Detection of sequelae from acute meningitis during clinical review by a healthcare provider: a systematic review and meta-analysis.” BMC medicine (2026). PMID: 41761295 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Etiology and Triggering Factors, Supportive Care and Complication Management, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes
  34. [34]

    Alviz LF, Kim CY, Benevides-Tadinac AC et al.. “Detection of hearing loss by formal audiological testing after acute infectious meningitis: a global systematic review and meta-analysis.” BMC medicine (2026). PMID: 41761238 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Etiology and Triggering Factors, History and Physical Examination, Diagnosis and Workup, Supportive Care and Complication Management, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes
  35. [35]

    Lazarus G, Caddey B, Dean A et al.. “Antimicrobial resistance in bacterial meningitis caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae, Neisseria meningitidis, or Haemophilus influenzae (2010-24): a systematic review and meta-analysis.” The Lancet. Microbe (2026). PMID: 41616789 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Etiology and Triggering Factors, Diagnosis and Workup, Management
  36. [36]

    Onohuean H, Choonara YE. “Epidemiological distribution of bacterial meningitis infections in South Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis.” BMC infectious diseases (2025). PMID: 41073968 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  37. [37]

    Akwetey SA, Osman AH, Kotey FCN et al.. “The epidemiology of infectious meningitis in Ghana: a systematic review and meta-analysis.” BMC public health (2025). PMID: 40770623 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  38. [38]

    Ellis J, Groppelli E, Doyle R et al.. “Epstein-Barr virus and cytomegalovirus co-infections and mortality risk in patients with HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis: a post-hoc analysis of a prospective nested cohort in the AMBITION-cm randomised controlled trial.” The lancet. HIV (2025). PMID: 40915307 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Landmark Trials and Key Evidence, Special Populations
  39. [39]

    Rutakingirwa MK, Skipper CP, Dai B et al.. “Evaluating the Use of Lower Dose Flucytosine for the Treatment of Cryptococcal Meningitis: A Clinical Trial.” Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America (2026). PMID: 40795226 ↗

    L2bTRIAL_NONRANDOMCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Special Populations
  40. [40]

    Verma R, Chakraborty R. “A Clinico-Immunological Perspective of Paradoxical Reaction in HIV-ve Tuberculous Meningitis with Therapeutic Possibilities.” Neurology India (2025). PMID: 40705281 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Supportive Care and Complication Management, Special Populations
  41. [41]

    Liechti FD, Drost EHGM, Bijlsma MW et al.. “Brain Abscesses Complicating Bacterial Meningitis-A Nationwide Cohort Study From the Netherlands.” European journal of neurology (2026). PMID: 41738138 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Etiology and Triggering Factors, Differential Diagnosis
  42. [42]

    Xu X, Su X, Li W et al.. “Clinical features and mortality risk factors in non-HIV elderly patients with cryptococcal meningitis: A retrospective cohort study from 2013 to 2022.” PLoS neglected tropical diseases (2025). PMID: 40934274 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  43. [43]

    Kim E, Hong J, Shin H et al.. “Prophylactic antibiotic use in closed basilar skull fractures: A nationwide cohort study.” The journal of trauma and acute care surgery (2026). PMID: 40857668 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  44. [44]

    Drummond H, Umana E, Mills C et al.. “Prevalence of invasive bacterial infection among febrile infants with positive urinalysis results: a planned secondary analysis of the Febrile Infants Diagnostic assessment and Outcome (FIDO) prospective observational cohort study.” Archives of disease in childhood (2025). PMID: 40628460 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, History and Physical Examination, Special Populations
  45. [45]

    He L, Yu M, Sun Z et al.. “Dynamic analysis of pathogenic distribution and drug resistance mechanism in neonatal suppurative meningitis: a retrospective study.” Italian journal of pediatrics (2025). PMID: 40604892 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  46. [46]

    Alhajaji R, Alfahmi M, Alamri SA et al.. “Neisseria Meningitidis Carriage Among Hajj and Umrah Pilgrims: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” European journal of medical research (2025). PMID: 40765002 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Prevention and Screening
  47. [47]

    Ali F, Imperial M, Morshed M et al.. “Pediatric Meningoencephalitis Cluster Caused by Snowshoe Hare Virus, Whistler, British Columbia, Canada, 2024.” Emerging infectious diseases (2026). PMID: 41986254 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Differential Diagnosis
  48. [48]

    Szojka ZI, Florian DM, Cabal A et al.. “Imported aseptic meningitis due to Toscana virus infection in Austria since 2006, including a case series from 2023.” International journal of infectious diseases : IJID : official publication of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (2025). PMID: 41615838 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Etiology and Triggering Factors, Diagnosis and Workup, Differential Diagnosis
  49. [49]

    Lagare A, Abdoulaye B, Thiaw FD et al.. “First detection of echovirus 18 associated with aseptic meningitis in a child in Niger Republic, 2024: a case report.” BMC infectious diseases (2025). PMID: 41126107 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  50. [50]

    Li Y, Zhang X, Wang M et al.. “Observation on the efficacy of Xiao Chai Hu Tang plus minus Tang combined with sodium valproate in the treatment of meningitis-associated epilepsy.” Pakistan journal of pharmaceutical sciences (2025). PMID: 40761063 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  51. [51]

    Levy C, Bizot E, Milcent K et al.. “Epidemiology and Characteristics of Bacterial Meningitis of Children with Cerebrospinal Fluid Leakage or Cochlear Implant.” Journal of the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society (2026). PMID: 41800559 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Etiology and Triggering Factors, Pathophysiology, History and Physical Examination, Diagnosis and Workup, Prevention and Screening
  52. [52]

    Lykke MR, Sørensen HT, Lawn JE et al.. “School performance following invasive Group B Streptococcus disease in early infancy in Denmark.” Annals of epidemiology (2026). PMID: 41643755 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Special Populations
  53. [53]

    Hawkins PA, Chochua S, Prasad N et al.. “Group A Streptococcus Meningitis, United States, 1997-2022.” Emerging infectious diseases (2026). PMID: 41612532 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Differential Diagnosis, Special Populations
  54. [54]

    André A, Brière O, Bourreau L et al.. “Risk factors for acute kidney injury associated with intravenous acyclovir in older adults: ACICLOAGED study.” Maturitas (2026). PMID: 41604824 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Differential Diagnosis
  55. [55]

    Mehl C, Schmidt-Chanasit J, Becker-Ziaja B et al.. “Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus Seroprevalence in a Cohort of German Forestry Workers.” Viruses (2025). PMID: 41600769 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  56. [56]

    Anjum SH, Hargarten J, Dulek B et al.. “Cerebral Venous Thrombosis in Previously Healthy Patients with Cryptococcal Meningitis.” The Journal of infectious diseases (2026). PMID: 41443253 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  57. [57]

    Mesele DW, Kalayu AA, Teshome S et al.. “Enhanced detection of bacterial etiologies, antibiotic resistance profile, and treatment outcomes of meningitis patients in Ethiopia: a prospective cross-sectional study.” BMC microbiology (2025). PMID: 41387772 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors
  58. [58]

    Lambebo IH, Eba K, Tucho GT. “Association between climatic conditions and infectious diseases: implications for Central Ethiopia region.” BMC infectious diseases (2025). PMID: 41331557 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, History and Physical Examination
  59. [59]

    Meya DB, Cresswell FV, Dai B et al.. “Trial of High-Dose Oral Rifampin in Adults with Tuberculous Meningitis.” The New England journal of medicine (2025). PMID: 41406445 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Management, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes, Landmark Trials and Key Evidence, Special Populations
  60. [60]

    Burstein B, Waterfield T, Umana E et al.. “Prediction of Bacteremia and Bacterial Meningitis Among Febrile Infants Aged 28 Days or Younger.” JAMA (2026). PMID: 41359314 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, History and Physical Examination, Management, Special Populations
  61. [61]

    Singh MP, Yadav R, Singh J. “Drug-Induced Aseptic Meningitis: A 25-Year Systematic Review of Case Reports.” Clinical neuropharmacology (Unknown). PMID: 41529234 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Pathophysiology, Management
  62. [62]

    Liang A, Zhang Y, Li X et al.. “Association of the blood urea nitrogen to serum albumin ratio on prognosis in patients with bacterial meningitis: a retrospective cohort study.” Frontiers in cellular and infection microbiology (2026). PMID: 41929452 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Diagnosis and Workup, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes
  63. [63]

    Dzięgiel M, Głodowicz Z, Jóźwiak A et al.. “Bacterial meningitis in adults: therapeutic challenges in the era of antibiotic resistance and the potential of bacteriophages and associated by products.” Frontiers in cellular and infection microbiology (2026). PMID: 41728112 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Management
  64. [64]

    Scott TL, Quezado M, Williamson PR. “Update on the diagnosis, pathophysiology and treatment strategies in non-HIV-associated cryptococcal meningoencephalitis.” Expert review of anti-infective therapy (2026). PMID: 41661810 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Pathophysiology, Special Populations
  65. [65]

    Shi Y, Liang T, Shi C et al.. “Molecular mechanisms of streptococcal disruption of the blood-brain barrier and their pathogenic role in bacterial meningitis.” Frontiers in immunology (2025). PMID: 41573555 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Pathophysiology
  66. [66]

    Churcher LM, Bartlett AW, Pendle S et al.. “Impact of the BioFire FilmArray Meningitis-Encephalitis Panel on Management of Suspected Paediatric Central Nervous System Infections: A Single-Centre Retrospective Cohort Study.” Journal of paediatrics and child health (2026). PMID: 41652807 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Pathophysiology, Diagnosis and Workup, Differential Diagnosis, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes
  67. [67]

    Maeda A, Hayashi K, Izumi R et al.. “Lumbar-peritoneal shunt-associated meningitis and peritoneal abscess due to Corynebacterium striatum: A case report and literature review.” Journal of infection and chemotherapy : official journal of the Japan Society of Chemotherapy (2026). PMID: 41391636 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Supportive Care and Complication Management
  68. [68]

    Ba A, Wang L, Ren R et al.. “Purulent meningitis in X-linked agammaglobulinemia: one case report.” Frontiers in immunology (2026). PMID: 41988175 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors
  69. [69]

    Hariswar PT, Mahathi G, Praveenkumar T et al.. “Clinical Reasoning: A 49-Year-Old Man With Meningoencephalitis and Persistent Altered Mental Status.” Neurology (2026). PMID: 41771008 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, History and Physical Examination, Diagnosis and Workup
  70. [70]

    Grant A, Keegan S, Kulasegaram R. “Role of long-acting injectables in perinatally acquired HIV, with persistent viraemia and non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor resistance.” Sexually transmitted infections (2026). PMID: 41545056 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Diagnosis and Workup, Management, Special Populations
  71. [71]

    Li XF, Ker A, Liao HL et al.. “Adult-onset Still's disease presenting with aseptic meningitis: a case report.” Frontiers in immunology (2025). PMID: 41476957 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Management, Supportive Care and Complication Management
  72. [72]

    Krebs L, Durden B, Saguil A. “Aseptic and Bacterial Meningitis: Diagnosis, Treatment, and Prevention.” American family physician (2026). PMID: 41839077 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Pathophysiology
  73. [73]

    Tucker EW, Kim J, Erice C et al.. “Host-directed nanotherapy for the treatment and imaging of tuberculous meningitis.” Theranostics (2026). PMID: 41993622 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Pathophysiology, Diagnosis and Workup, Management
  74. [74]

    Pircher H, Thomas OS, Haefke AS et al.. “Increased Constitutive Interferon-β Levels and Altered CD4 T Cell Homeostasis Induced by Expression of a Viral Glycoprotein.” European journal of immunology (2026). PMID: 41972454 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors
  75. [75]

    Flannery DD, Cossaboom CM, Flietstra TD et al.. “Lymphocytic Choriomeningitis Virus Seroprevalence among Urban Pregnant Women and Newborns, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA, 2021.” Emerging infectious diseases (2026). PMID: 41863505 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Special Populations
  76. [76]

    Kansas GS. “Transient loss of KLF2 expression is essential for CD8 effector T cell expansion.” Journal of immunology (Baltimore, Md. : 1950) (2026). PMID: 41847849 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Diagnosis and Workup
  77. [77]

    Wang Y, Liu H, Wang Y et al.. “Biosynthesis of a Polysaccharide-based Glycoconjugate Vaccine against Neonatal Meningitis-Causing Escherichia coli O45.” ACS synthetic biology (2026). PMID: 41779879 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Prevention and Screening
  78. [78]

    George LS, Chakraborty A, Gupta S et al.. “Implementation of India's largest sentinel surveillance for meningitis: an exploratory qualitative analysis of the facilitators and challenges in this sentinel site network.” Frontiers in public health (2026). PMID: 41778120 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes, Prevention and Screening
  79. [79]

    Lux J, Erhardt M, Rechsteiner L et al.. “Synthetic peptide V11A reduces bacterial load and inflammation in pneumococcal meningitis.” Frontiers in cellular and infection microbiology (2025). PMID: 41737843 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Management
  80. [80]

    Charmoy M, Maier JM, Wyss T et al.. “Memory-like CD8+ T cells lacking PD-1 adapt to persistent stimulation by reducing TCR signal transduction rather than increasing exhaustion.” Frontiers in immunology (2026). PMID: 41727489 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors
  81. [81]

    Yabumoto T, Sugiyama S, Hosokawa A et al.. “Viral load and pathophysiology-based framework in varicella-zoster virus meningitis: Focus on altered consciousness and outcomes.” Journal of the neurological sciences (2026). PMID: 41690184 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, History and Physical Examination
  82. [82]

    Wollenweber ML, Beyrer K, Baillot A et al.. “The Meningitis and Encephalitis Registry of Lower Saxony, Germany (MERIN) - design and main results of circulating neurotropic pathogen surveillance, 2003 to 2023.” Euro surveillance : bulletin Europeen sur les maladies transmissibles = European communicable disease bulletin (2026). PMID: 41684324 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Differential Diagnosis, Special Populations
  83. [83]

    Huang M, Wang Y, Chen T et al.. “Evaluation of contezolid's cerebrospinal fluid concentration and safety in tuberculous meningitis patients.” Microbiology spectrum (2026). PMID: 41823550 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis and Workup, Management, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes, Landmark Trials and Key Evidence
  84. [84]

    Donovan J, Duc Bang N, Dong HKT et al.. “Genotype-stratified adjunctive dexamethasone for tuberculous meningitis in HIV-negative adults: a randomized controlled phase 3 trial.” Nature medicine (2026). PMID: 41540106 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Pathophysiology, Management, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes, Landmark Trials and Key Evidence
  85. [85]

    Santiago IB, da Silva AA, Nóbrega ILP et al.. “Leukodystrophy-like phenotype in early-onset neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus: Case series and systematic review of the literature.” Revue neurologique (2026). PMID: 41638970 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis and Workup, Supportive Care and Complication Management
  86. [86]

    Muyidi AA, Al-Zaydani IA, Alzahrani SJ et al.. “Neonatal invasive meningococcal disease: Clinical case from Saudi Arabia and updated review of reported cases.” Journal of infection and public health (2026). PMID: 41894900 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis and Workup, Management, Supportive Care and Complication Management, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes, Special Populations
  87. [87]

    Luo Y, Guo Y, Zhu Y et al.. “Differentiating scrub typhus meningitis from brucellar meningitis in children: A single-center retrospective study.” PLoS neglected tropical diseases (2026). PMID: 41824464 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis and Workup
  88. [88]

    Chouksey SS, Singh VK, Chaurasia RN et al.. “Neurocognitive Outcomes and Their Correlation with Brain-Based Biomarkers in Tuberculous Meningitis: A Prospective Study.” The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene (2026). PMID: 41666470 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis and Workup, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes
  89. [89]

    Wong EWN, Chan CF, Chan PS. “Ocular Manifestations of Biopsy-Proven B Virus Infection with Central Nervous System Involvement.” JAMA ophthalmology (2026). PMID: 41712248 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis and Workup
  90. [90]

    Bao Y, Zhang W, Liu X et al.. “Case Report: Complete remission of Guillain-Barré syndrome in neuropsychiatric lupus with telitacicept.” Frontiers in immunology (2026). PMID: 41659868 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis and Workup, Management, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes
  91. [91]

    Yang X, Li Z, Dai X et al.. “Streptococcus pyogenes and EBV coinfection in severe adult meningoencephalitis: a rare diagnosis in a diabetic patient.” Frontiers in cellular and infection microbiology (2025). PMID: 41625152 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis and Workup, Management
  92. [92]

    Ye R, Guo K, Zhou D et al.. “Misdiagnosed tuberculous myelitis turned out to be spinal malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor: a case report.” Neurological sciences : official journal of the Italian Neurological Society and of the Italian Society of Clinical Neurophysiology (2026). PMID: 41521307 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Pathophysiology
  93. [93]

    Liu F, Sun S, Zhang Y et al.. “Possible tuberculous meningitis presenting with predominant voiding dysfunction in an elderly patient: A case report.” Journal of infection and public health (2026). PMID: 41505815 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Pathophysiology, Management
  94. [94]

    Ito Y, Hoeltermann TA, Anjum S et al.. “Corticosteroid Therapy and Long-Term Outcomes of Post-Infectious Inflammatory Syndrome in Non-HIV Immunosuppressed Cryptococcal Meningitis: A Multicenter Case Series.” The Journal of infectious diseases (2026). PMID: 41486473 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Pathophysiology, Supportive Care and Complication Management, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes, Special Populations
  95. [95]

    Nagata W, Ishizuka T. “Pathogenesis and therapeutic strategies for neuropsychiatric lupus centered on innate immune activation.” Human cell (2026). PMID: 41989680 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology
  96. [96]

    Demirtzoglou G, Damanaki A, Flouda S et al.. “Unique brain mechanisms in early events in SLE with diffuse neuropsychiatric disease (NPSLE): Implications for the management.” Lupus (2026). PMID: 41831216 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology
  97. [97]

    Butler HM, Zehntner ME, Van Beusecum JP. “Endothelial Dysfunction: Insights into Systemic Lupus Erythematosus-associated Cardiovascular Disease and Neuropsychiatric Manifestations.” Journal of cardiovascular translational research (2026). PMID: 41795008 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology
  98. [98]

    Perera N, Gunawardena C, Abeyratne V et al.. “Neuroleptospirosis in patients presenting with primary central nervous system infection: A multicentre study.” PLoS neglected tropical diseases (2026). PMID: 41945620 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis and Workup, Differential Diagnosis, Supportive Care and Complication Management
  99. [99]

    Molloy CT, Alwarawrah Y, Cohen JA et al.. “Irgm1 Restrains CD8+ T Cell Cytokine Production and Apoptosis via Cell-Extrinsic Regulation of Type I Interferon Signaling.” European journal of immunology (2026). PMID: 41906618 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Pathophysiology
  100. [100]

    Matmat K, Guéant-Rodriguez RM, Darcq E et al.. “IFNγ-associated immune-metabolic remodeling is linked to serotonin-kynurenine imbalance and cortical vulnerability in lupus-prone mice.” Frontiers in immunology (2026). PMID: 41869319 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Pathophysiology
  101. [101]

    Onita T, Ikawa K. “Cerebrospinal Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Evaluation of Sulbactam: Dosing Considerations for Acinetobacter baumannii Meningitis in Pediatric Patients.” Journal of the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society (2026). PMID: 41810872 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis and Workup, Management, Special Populations
  102. [102]

    Yovel G, Packard JE, Wang JC et al.. “Neonatal CNS Human Parechovirus Infections in Western Pennsylvania in the 2024 Season.” Journal of medical virology (2026). PMID: 41810583 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis and Workup, Special Populations
  103. [103]

    Chen J, Cui C, Xu F et al.. “ShenQi DiHuang Decoction (SQDHD) Ameliorates Neuroinflammation and Neuropsychiatric Manifestations in Pristane Induced Lupus Mice via Blocking JAK1-STAT3 Pathway.” CNS neuroscience & therapeutics (2026). PMID: 41795136 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Pathophysiology
  104. [104]

    Shean RC, Tardif KD, Rangel A et al.. “Evaluation of the Ultima Genomics UG 100 sequencer for low-cost, high-sensitivity metagenomic pathogen detection from cerebrospinal fluid.” Microbiology spectrum (2026). PMID: 41778823 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Pathophysiology, Diagnosis and Workup, Differential Diagnosis
  105. [105]

    Twito NA, Röthlisberger AB. “Retrospective evaluation of leflunomide as second-line immunosuppressive therapy in dogs with meningoencephalomyelitis of unknown origin: 18 cases (2018-2025).” Journal of veterinary internal medicine (2026). PMID: 41742594 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Pathophysiology, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes
  106. [106]

    Aguilera C, Subah GD, Bogle C et al.. “Utility of Bone Cement for Cranioplasty Following Retrosigmoid or Translabyrinthine Craniectomy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” Neurosurgical review (2025). PMID: 41254416 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: History and Physical Examination
  107. [107]

    Khan K, Wilson P, Patel MS et al.. “A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Meningitis Risk Reduction After Repair of Spontaneous Lateral Skull Base Cerebrospinal Fluid Leaks.” Otology & neurotology : official publication of the American Otological Society, American Neurotology Society [and] European Academy of Otology and Neurotology (2025). PMID: 41039648 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: History and Physical Examination
  108. [108]

    Julio PR, Capello CH, de Amorim JC et al.. “Chorea associated with systemic lupus erythematosus- a systematic review.” Lupus (2025). PMID: 40390391 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: History and Physical Examination
  109. [109]

    Deniz M, Erat T, Arı HF et al.. “Evaluation of children with acute central nervous system infections admitted to the pediatric intensive care unit and pediatric ward: a retrospective study.” BMC pediatrics (2024). PMID: 39587526 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: History and Physical Examination
  110. [110]

    Pantalone MR, De Luca F, Terling L et al.. “Candida meningitis in three patients who underwent transsphenoidal surgery from a single-institution case series.” Acta neurochirurgica (2026). PMID: 41826722 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: History and Physical Examination
  111. [111]

    Yuan X, Fang M, Lan W et al.. “From urinary tract infection to deafness: community-acquired meningitis in an adult caused by hypervirulent Klebsiella pneumoniae-a case report.” BMC infectious diseases (2025). PMID: 41390369 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: History and Physical Examination
  112. [112]

    Goh WGW, Ng IKS, Tan MKX et al.. “Clinical Reasoning: A 26-Year-Old Woman With Headache and Eosinophilia.” Neurology (2025). PMID: 39983059 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: History and Physical Examination
  113. [113]

    Willis ZI, Buonsenso D. “Management of Young Infants With Incomplete Evaluation for Meningitis.” Journal of the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society (2026). PMID: 41670340 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: History and Physical Examination, Special Populations
  114. [114]

    Lovund IK, Mjelle AB, Thaulow CM et al.. “Bacterial Meningitis in Norwegian Children 2010-2023: Low Incidence but Still a Major Threat in Neonates.” Acta paediatrica (Oslo, Norway : 1992) (2026). PMID: 41273196 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination
  115. [115]

    Krongsut S, Srithanabout P, Pansaksiri S et al.. “A new diagnostic model for the early differentiation of tuberculous and bacterial meningitis to guide timely diagnosis and treatment: Model development and internal validation.” Journal of infection and public health (2025). PMID: 41076850 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination
  116. [116]

    Nguyen THP, Young BR, Bornstein LM et al.. “Prevalence of Serious Infection Among Hypothermic Young Infants Across Medical Settings.” Hospital pediatrics (2025). PMID: 40947113 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination
  117. [117]

    Tang R, Mao S, Gu Y et al.. “A Nomogram Model to Predict Meningitis Occurrence in Cerebrospinal Fluid Leak Patients.” The Laryngoscope (2026). PMID: 40923621 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination
  118. [118]

    Aronson PL, Mahajan P, Meeks HD et al.. “Prediction Rule to Identify Febrile Infants 61-90 Days at Low Risk for Invasive Bacterial Infections.” Pediatrics (2025). PMID: 40854562 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination
  119. [119]

    Tang Y, Huang P, Xu J et al.. “Comprehensive analysis of disease activity, neuropsychiatric symptoms, imaging features and risk factors for seizure in hospitalized patients with juvenile-onset neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus.” Seminars in arthritis and rheumatism (2025). PMID: 40784140 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination
  120. [120]

    Fischer JL, Gallagher TJ, Lin ME et al.. “Complications in Endoscopic Sinus Surgery: A TriNetX Network Analysis.” International forum of allergy & rhinology (2025). PMID: 40782144 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination
  121. [121]

    Doka Hélène KS, Ignatius E, Berinyuy M et al.. “Nonsurgical Neurological Emergencies in Children: A Cross-Sectional Study of Prevalence, Diagnosis, and Management.” Pediatric neurology (2025). PMID: 40609287 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination
  122. [122]

    Urmenyi LG, Vinhaes CL, Villalva-Serra K et al.. “Influence of HIV co-infection on clinical presentation and disease outcome in hospitalized adults with tuberculous meningitis in Brazil: a nationwide observational study.” Frontiers in public health (2025). PMID: 40589807 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination
  123. [123]

    Aronson PL, Mahajan P, Nielsen B et al.. “Risk of Bacterial Infections in Febrile Infants 61 to 90 Days Old With Respiratory Viruses.” Pediatrics (2025). PMID: 40506050 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination
  124. [124]

    Steele JL, Smith HJ, Takkoush S et al.. “Long-Term Outcomes of Adult Temporal Bone Fractures With Hearing Loss: Results of a Multinational Database Analysis.” The Laryngoscope (2025). PMID: 40202220 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination
  125. [125]

    Yaeger JP, Hill EL, Ertefaie A et al.. “A Population-Based Study of Rates of Invasive Bacterial Infection (IBI) and Missed IBI in Febrile Infants 8-90 Days of Age.” The Journal of pediatrics (2025). PMID: 40199453 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination
  126. [126]

    Kameda S, Yamana H, Sasabuchi Y et al.. “Early Corticosteroid Use and Short-Term Outcomes in Pediatric Bacterial Meningitis: A Nationwide Study in Japan, 2014 to 2022.” Pediatric neurology (2025). PMID: 39892022 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination
  127. [127]

    Liu H, Kong X, Zeng Y et al.. “From pain to meningitis: bacteria hijack nociceptors to promote meningitis.” Frontiers in immunology (2024). PMID: 39877376 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: History and Physical Examination
  128. [128]

    Yaeger JP, Fiscella KA. “Variability in Invasive Bacterial Infection Proportions Among Febrile Infants Aged 8-90 Days Using Administrative Data.” Academic pediatrics (2025). PMID: 39577560 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination
  129. [129]

    Chessa E, Congiu F, Rizzo G et al.. “Rationale for investigating the use of anifrolumab in neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus: a combined narrative and case-based systematic literature review.” Frontiers in immunology (2026). PMID: 41756273 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Diagnosis and Workup, Supportive Care and Complication Management, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes
  130. [130]

    Nouroozi F, Kazemi HS, Alinezhad A et al.. “Artificial Intelligence-based detection of neuropsychiatric lupus: an exploratory meta-analysis of neuroimaging and multimodal biomarker models.” Clinical and experimental medicine (2026). PMID: 41627551 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Diagnosis and Workup
  131. [131]

    Uawithya E, Siriphiphatcharoen P, Benjapibal B et al.. “Clinical, imaging, and immunological features of GFAP astrocytopathy: a systematic review with regional comparison.” Multiple sclerosis and related disorders (2026). PMID: 41576641 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Diagnosis and Workup, Differential Diagnosis
  132. [132]

    Zhao L, He J, Mei C et al.. “The efficacy of rituximab plus telitacicept in neuropsychiatric systemic lupus erythematosus: A retrospective study.” Clinical immunology (Orlando, Fla.) (2026). PMID: 41708039 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Diagnosis and Workup, Management, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes
  133. [133]

    Wang W, Tang S, Yang J et al.. “Individualized immunotherapy for immune reconstitution-associated cortical encephalitis in an HIV-positive cryptococcal meningitis patient: a case report.” Frontiers in immunology (2026). PMID: 41983125 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Diagnosis and Workup, Differential Diagnosis, Management, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes, Special Populations
  134. [134]

    Ogawa T, Yamashiro K, Tsutsumi S et al.. “IgG4-related hypertrophic pachymeningitis presenting with marked dural thickening, widespread white matter changes, and rectus gyrus transdiaphragmatic herniation into the sella turcica: a case report.” Frontiers in immunology (2026). PMID: 41756303 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Diagnosis and Workup
  135. [135]

    Jain S, Dayal R, Kamal R et al.. “Comparative analysis of diagnostic efficacy of loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) and CBNAAT in children with suspected tubercular meningitis: a cross-sectional study.” BMJ paediatrics open (2026). PMID: 41850741 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup
  136. [136]

    Gao X, Guo Y, Luo P et al.. “Central nervous system infection caused by Mycoplasma hominis in an adult: a case report and literature review.” European journal of clinical microbiology & infectious diseases : official publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology (2025). PMID: 40788590 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Differential Diagnosis
  137. [137]

    Chaúque BJM, Chagas LB, da Silva TCB et al.. “Promising Drug Repurposing Candidates Targeting Free-Living Amoebae: A Systematic and Critical Review of Laboratory-Based Evidence.” Pathogens (Basel, Switzerland) (2026). PMID: 41901747 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Differential Diagnosis
  138. [138]

    Bogovič P, Kastrin A, Trampuš Bakija A et al.. “Cerebrospinal fluid findings and their temporal pattern in patients with different clinical presentations of tick-borne encephalitis; a cohort study.” Infection (2026). PMID: 41307887 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Differential Diagnosis
  139. [139]

    López N, Cuesta G, Puerta-Alcalde P. “Viral meningoencephalitis: a focus on diagnostics.” Current opinion in infectious diseases (2025). PMID: 40990729 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Differential Diagnosis
  140. [140]

    Di Maria S, Bolcato M, Concato M et al.. “Hospital-Acquired Citrobacter Meningitis Complicated by Pneumocephalus in a Neonate.” Pediatrics (2026). PMID: 41734809 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Differential Diagnosis, Supportive Care and Complication Management, Special Populations
  141. [141]

    Marín-Cruz I, López-Lobato M, Falcón-Neyra D et al.. “Emergence of Pediatric West Nile Virus Neuroinvasive Disease in Spain: An Expanding Threat in a Changing Climate-A Case Series.” The Pediatric infectious disease journal (2026). PMID: 41361685 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Differential Diagnosis, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes
  142. [142]

    Nguyen LCA, Nguyen PMA, Nguyen THN. “Human herpesvirus 7 induced aseptic meningitis in an immunocompetent adult presenting with unusual neurological symptoms: a case report.” Virology journal (2025). PMID: 41299705 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Differential Diagnosis, Supportive Care and Complication Management
  143. [143]

    Lin Y, Diao Z, Low J et al.. “Therapeutic efficacy of telitacicept in a patient with GFAP autoimmune astrocytopathy: a case report.” Frontiers in immunology (2025). PMID: 41181139 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Differential Diagnosis, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes
  144. [144]

    Zhang Y, Zheng S, Li Y et al.. “Case Report: A case of neuropsychiatric lupus with primary central nervous system diffuse large B-cell lymphoma.” Frontiers in immunology (2025). PMID: 40918104 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Differential Diagnosis
  145. [145]

    Yang J, Zhang F, Guo X et al.. “Human herpesvirus type 4 combined with Brucella abortus meningitis case report.” BMC infectious diseases (2025). PMID: 40855467 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Differential Diagnosis
  146. [146]

    El-Baba M, Austin E. “Thunderclap headache in a patient with Salmonella Enterica meningitis.” The American journal of emergency medicine (2025). PMID: 40603211 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Differential Diagnosis
  147. [147]

    Lopez C, Sanchez-Sanchez R, Corona D et al.. “A Fatal Case of Monkeypox-Associated Encephalitis in a Non-HIV-Infected Patient.” Critical care explorations (2025). PMID: 40505032 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Differential Diagnosis
  148. [148]

    Ramirez J, Furmanek S, Chandler T et al.. “A Ten-Year Retrospective Review of Medical Records of Patients Admitted with Meningitis or Encephalitis at Five Hospitals in the United States Highlights the Potential for Under-Ascertainment of Invasive Meningococcal Disease.” Pathogens (Basel, Switzerland) (2025). PMID: 41156573 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Differential Diagnosis
  149. [149]

    Shahrivar F, Moghimi A, Hosseinzadeh R et al.. “A comprehensive review on the neurological impact of parasitic infections.” Microbial pathogenesis (2025). PMID: 40446972 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Differential Diagnosis
  150. [150]

    Pang L, Xu X, Liu Y et al.. “A case report and literature review of neuropsychiatric lupus presenting with coma as the initial symptom.” Medicine (2026). PMID: 41560092 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Differential Diagnosis
  151. [151]

    Gao P, Chen X, Li Y et al.. “Anti-CASPR2 meningoencephalitis with thickened dura mater induced by various infections: A case report and literature review.” Medicine (2025). PMID: 40550065 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Differential Diagnosis
  152. [152]

    Veljanoska E, Szende A, McGill F et al.. “Cost implications of introducing the BIOFIRE FILMARRAY meningitis/encephalitis panel vs. real-time PCR in adult and pediatric populations in the UK.” Journal of medical economics (2026). PMID: 41608961 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Differential Diagnosis
  153. [153]

    Yakubovsky M, Kadar L, Katchman E et al.. “Cat scratch disease encephalitis: New insights into rate, clinical features, and long-term outcomes.” International journal of infectious diseases : IJID : official publication of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (2026). PMID: 41544843 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Differential Diagnosis, Supportive Care and Complication Management
  154. [154]

    Nassur JA, Schnell KM, Dolon CD et al.. “Epidemiology of healthcare-associated ventriculitis and meningitis (HCAVM) and community-acquired meningitis/encephalitis and evaluation of an off-label PCR panel for HCAVM diagnosis.” Microbiology spectrum (2026). PMID: 41451990 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Differential Diagnosis
  155. [155]

    Ellis J, Hale G, Nsangi LJ et al.. “Inpatient initiation of tuberculosis preventive therapy with 1 month of isoniazid and rifapentine for adults with advanced HIV disease and cryptococcal meningitis (IMPROVE): a non-inferiority, randomised controlled trial.” The lancet. HIV (2026). PMID: 41662846 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Management, Landmark Trials and Key Evidence, Special Populations
  156. [156]

    Chandu M, Bhatia R, Modi M et al.. “Patterns and Factors Associated With Cerebral Infarction on MRI in Tuberculous Meningitis: Secondary Analysis of the ACT-TBM Trial.” Stroke (2026). PMID: 41521897 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Management, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes, Landmark Trials and Key Evidence
  157. [157]

    Yuan R, Peng H, Wang Y et al.. “Prognostic nomogram for predicting postoperative meningitis duration in skull base tumor surgery: a retrospective cohort study.” Journal of neurosurgery (2026). PMID: 41349019 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Management, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes
  158. [158]

    Peng H, Yuan R, Zheng Y et al.. “Delayed diagnosis in postoperative bacterial meningitis: A retrospective study in the skull base neoplasm surgery.” Clinical neurology and neurosurgery (2026). PMID: 41317437 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Management
  159. [159]

    Smith D, Garikipati R, Bastug K et al.. “Paenibacillus dendritiformis as a Cause of Destructive Meningitis in Infants.” NEJM evidence (2026). PMID: 41632684 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Management
  160. [160]

    Wang L, Bi Y, Zhou Y et al.. “Meningitis due to pandrug resistant Chryseobacterium gleum: microbiological cure and clinical response with linezolid-based combination therapy.” European journal of clinical microbiology & infectious diseases : official publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology (2026). PMID: 41483390 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Management, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes
  161. [161]

    Ariza-Varón M, Jaramillo-Arrázola MJ, Riveros L et al.. “Meningitis caused by Fusobacterium nucleatum complicated with cavernous sinus thrombosis: A case report.” International journal of infectious diseases : IJID : official publication of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (2026). PMID: 41330476 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Management, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes
  162. [162]

    Liu W, He T, Qin H et al.. “Concentration of contezolid in cerebrospinal fluid and serum in a patient with renal allograft tuberculosis and tuberculous meningoencephalitis.” BMC infectious diseases (2025). PMID: 41257614 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Management
  163. [163]

    Maran K, Adams R, Khan A et al.. “Intravenous Liposomal Amphotericin as an Adjunct to Fluconazole in Pediatric Patients With Central Nervous System Coccidioidomycosis: A Single-Center Case Series.” Journal of the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society (2025). PMID: 41217140 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Management, Supportive Care and Complication Management, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes
  164. [164]

    Jiang H, Hu Y, Cai J et al.. “Variations in ventricular distribution of polymyxin B following intraventricular administration in patients with central nervous system infections.” Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy (2026). PMID: 41196281 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Management
  165. [165]

    Diop S, Van Caenegem N, Troupel T et al.. “Combination of azathioprine and prednisolone as a treatment for meningoencephalomyelitis of unknown origin in dogs: 54 cases.” Journal of veterinary internal medicine (2026). PMID: 41742501 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Management, Supportive Care and Complication Management
  166. [166]

    Kilgore MD, Carr C, Kuchar M et al.. “Utility of lumbar and external ventricular drainage in the management of meningitis: a systematic review.” Neurosurgical focus (2025). PMID: 41175399 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management, Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes
  167. [167]

    Fagundes W, Ahmed AR, Silva YP et al.. “Endoscopic third ventriculostomy versus ventriculoperitoneal shunt for treating pediatric tuberculous meningitis hydrocephalus: a systematic review and meta-analysis.” Journal of neurosurgery. Pediatrics (2025). PMID: 40479834 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  168. [168]

    Tang X, Zhang W, Zhou A et al.. “Clinical, imaging, and recurrence analysis of myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein antibody-associated disease with initial presentation as meningoencephalitis in children: a single-center retrospective study.” Pediatric radiology (2025). PMID: 40464908 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  169. [169]

    Liu L, Wang X, Guo L et al.. “Epidemiological characteristics and disease burden of bacterial meningitis in hospitalized children in China: a 6-year nationwide retrospective study.” BMC infectious diseases (2025). PMID: 40275150 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  170. [170]

    Hsu CH, Hsuan YT, Chan YJ et al.. “Clinical presentation of cytomegalovirus meningoencephalitis: a retrospective study of 12 adult patients with a variety of immunocompromised conditions.” BMC infectious diseases (2025). PMID: 40264020 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  171. [171]

    Aletayeb SMH, Dehdashtian M, Aramesh MR et al.. “Ten-year review of hospital-acquired neonatal meningitis in a tertiary-level NICU: the important role of acinetobacter species.” BMC infectious diseases (2025). PMID: 40259250 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  172. [172]

    Datta A, Vardhan MV, Srivastava C. “Paroxysmal sympathetic hyperactivity in tubercular meningitis: An underacknowledged association.” Child's nervous system : ChNS : official journal of the International Society for Pediatric Neurosurgery (2025). PMID: 41284088 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  173. [173]

    Li C, Liu M, Ji Y et al.. “Clinical characteristics and prognostic indicators in Listeria monocytogenes meningoencephalitis: A retrospective case series and literature review.” BMC neurology (2025). PMID: 41087940 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  174. [174]

    Sheng C, Wang M, Bao Q et al.. “Anti-tuberculosis therapy combined with ventriculoperitoneal shunt for tuberculous meningitis combined with hydrocephalus: A case report.” Journal of infection and public health (2025). PMID: 40763461 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  175. [175]

    Wu C, Han X, Yang F et al.. “Misdiagnosis of autoimmune glial fibrillary acidic protein astrocytopathy as infectious meningitis: a case report.” Neurological sciences : official journal of the Italian Neurological Society and of the Italian Society of Clinical Neurophysiology (2025). PMID: 40439829 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  176. [176]

    Wang X, Liang L, Liang Y et al.. “A rare case of multiple brain abscesses caused by Nocardia abscessus co-infection with tuberculous meningitis in an immunocompetent patient.” BMC infectious diseases (2025). PMID: 40360973 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  177. [177]

    Sedgwick AK, Anderson S. “Acute Mastoiditis Complicated by Meningitis: A Case Report and Condition Overview.” Critical care nurse (2025). PMID: 41319997 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  178. [178]

    Plaatjie ON, van Furth AMT, Solomons R et al.. “Characterization of CSF tryptophan metabolites in South African children with tuberculous meningitis.” International journal of infectious diseases : IJID : official publication of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (2026). PMID: 41260406 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  179. [179]

    Lempinen L, Saat R, Laulajainen-Hongisto A et al.. “Otogenic meningitis in children.” Infection (2026). PMID: 41247662 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  180. [180]

    Tianrui Y, Lingyun B, Jin G. “Establishment of a risk prediction model for hydrocephalus complicated by neonatal bacterial meningitis.” BMC infectious diseases (2025). PMID: 41013354 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Supportive Care and Complication Management
  181. [181]

    Lin Q, Fang W, Fan K et al.. “A novel diagnostic strategy of differential diagnosis of tuberculous meningitis and non-tuberculous meningitis: a retrospective observational cohort study.” Microbiology spectrum (2026). PMID: 41313026 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes
  182. [182]

    Ashwin JV, Verma R, Shahi MK et al.. “Cognitive impairment in tuberculous meningitis: Systematic review & meta-analysis.” The Indian journal of tuberculosis (2026). PMID: 41831920 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes
  183. [183]

    Wang H, Ye S, Sun F. “Comparison of obinutuzumab and rituximab for treating neuropsychiatric lupus: a retrospective case-control study.” Lupus science & medicine (2025). PMID: 41193185 ↗

    L3bCASE_CONTROLCited in: Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes
  184. [184]

    Walker RS, Vallejos GB, Nurye T et al.. “An analysis of national guidelines for the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of cryptococcal meningitis in sub-Saharan African countries: gaps and opportunities.” BMJ global health (2026). PMID: 41714099 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Prognosis and Long-term Outcomes
  185. [185]

    Tian C, Jin S, Zhao Z et al.. “Association of Corticosteroid Treatment With Outcomes in Pediatric Patients With Bacterial Meningitis: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.” Clinical therapeutics (2022). PMID: 35272859 ↗

    L1aSR_MA_RCTCited in: Landmark Trials and Key Evidence
  186. [186]

    Hodgson A, Haidara FC, Sow SO et al.. “Immunogenicity and safety of a meningococcal a conjugate vaccine administered with routine EPI vaccines in African infants and toddlers.” Vaccine (2025). PMID: 40966979 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Landmark Trials and Key Evidence, Prevention and Screening
  187. [187]

    Calderin JM, Wasserman S, Resendiz-Galvan JE et al.. “Population pharmacokinetics of pyrazinamide and isoniazid in plasma and cerebrospinal fluid from South African adults with tuberculous meningitis.” Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy (2025). PMID: 40590723 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Landmark Trials and Key Evidence
  188. [188]

    Abdelgawad N, Wasserman S, Gausi K et al.. “Population Pharmacokinetics of Rifampicin in Plasma and Cerebrospinal Fluid in Adults With Tuberculosis Meningitis.” The Journal of infectious diseases (2025). PMID: 40295169 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Landmark Trials and Key Evidence
  189. [189]

    Samuels THA, Molloy SF, Lawrence DS et al.. “Personalised risk-prediction tools for cryptococcal meningitis mortality to guide treatment stratification in sub-Saharan Africa: a prognostic modelling study based on pooled analysis of two randomised controlled trials.” The Lancet. Global health (2025). PMID: 40288401 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Landmark Trials and Key Evidence
  190. [190]

    Diallo F, Haidara FC, Tapia MD et al.. “Safety and immunogenicity of a pentavalent meningococcal conjugate vaccine targeting serogroups A, C, W, Y, and X when co-administered with routine childhood vaccines at ages 9 months and 15 months in Mali: a single-centre, double-blind, randomised, controlled, phase 3, non-inferiority trial.” Lancet (London, England) (2025). PMID: 40086461 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Landmark Trials and Key Evidence, Prevention and Screening
  191. [191]

    Chow FC, Kafeero P, Nakimbugwe M et al.. “Safety and Tolerability of a Short Course of Linezolid for the Treatment of Predominantly Moderate to Severe Tuberculous Meningitis in Adults With Human Immunodeficiency Virus.” The Journal of infectious diseases (2025). PMID: 39960851 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Landmark Trials and Key Evidence
  192. [192]

    Ibnou Zekri Lassout N, Goyal V, Krantz E et al.. “Bioavailability of a novel sustained-release pellet formulation of 5-flucytosine in healthy-fed participants for use in patients with cryptococcal meningitis.” Clinical and translational science (2024). PMID: 39291723 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Landmark Trials and Key Evidence
  193. [193]

    Meya DB, Nalintya E, Skipper CP et al.. “Adjunctive Single-Dose Liposomal Amphotericin to Prevent Cryptococcal Meningitis in People With HIV-Associated Cryptococcal Antigenemia and Low Plasma Cryptococcal Antigen Titers.” Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America (2025). PMID: 39044381 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Landmark Trials and Key Evidence
  194. [194]

    Ahmed T, Tauheed I, Hoque S et al.. “A phase 3 non-inferiority trial of locally manufactured Meningococcal ACWY vaccine 'Ingovax ACWY' among Bangladeshi adults.” Vaccine (2024). PMID: 38897895 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Landmark Trials and Key Evidence, Prevention and Screening
  195. [195]

    Asante KP, Mathanga DP, Milligan P et al.. “Feasibility, safety, and impact of the RTS,S/AS01E malaria vaccine when implemented through national immunisation programmes: evaluation of cluster-randomised introduction of the vaccine in Ghana, Kenya, and Malawi.” Lancet (London, England) (2024). PMID: 38583454 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Landmark Trials and Key Evidence, Prevention and Screening
  196. [196]

    Donovan J, Bang ND, Imran D et al.. “Adjunctive Dexamethasone for Tuberculous Meningitis in HIV-Positive Adults.” The New England journal of medicine (2023). PMID: 37819954 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Landmark Trials and Key Evidence
  197. [197]

    Boulware DR, Atukunda M, Kagimu E et al.. “Oral Lipid Nanocrystal Amphotericin B for Cryptococcal Meningitis: A Randomized Clinical Trial.” Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America (2023). PMID: 37606364 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Landmark Trials and Key Evidence
  198. [198]

    Haidara FC, Umesi A, Sow SO et al.. “Meningococcal ACWYX Conjugate Vaccine in 2-to-29-Year-Olds in Mali and Gambia.” The New England journal of medicine (2023). PMID: 37224196 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Landmark Trials and Key Evidence
  199. [199]

    Davis AG, Wasserman S, Stek C et al.. “A Phase 2A Trial of the Safety and Tolerability of Increased Dose Rifampicin and Adjunctive Linezolid, With or Without Aspirin, for Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Associated Tuberculous Meningitis: The LASER-TBM Trial.” Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America (2023). PMID: 36482216 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Landmark Trials and Key Evidence
  200. [200]

    Kelentse N, Moyo S, Choga WT et al.. “High concordance in plasma and CSF HIV-1 drug resistance mutations despite high cases of CSF viral escape in individuals with HIV-associated cryptococcal meningitis in Botswana.” The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy (2022). PMID: 36322466 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Landmark Trials and Key Evidence
  201. [201]

    Jarvis JN, Lawrence DS, Meya DB et al.. “Single-Dose Liposomal Amphotericin B Treatment for Cryptococcal Meningitis.” The New England journal of medicine (2022). PMID: 35320642 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Landmark Trials and Key Evidence
  202. [202]

    Paradkar MS, Devaleenal D B, Mvalo T et al.. “Randomized Clinical Trial of High-Dose Rifampicin With or Without Levofloxacin Versus Standard of Care for Pediatric Tuberculous Meningitis: The TBM-KIDS Trial.” Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America (2022). PMID: 35291004 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Landmark Trials and Key Evidence
  203. [203]

    Ngan NTT, Thanh Hoang Le N, Vi Vi NN et al.. “An open label randomized controlled trial of tamoxifen combined with amphotericin B and fluconazole for cryptococcal meningitis.” eLife (2021). PMID: 34581270 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Landmark Trials and Key Evidence
  204. [204]

    Wasserman S, Davis A, Stek C et al.. “Plasma Pharmacokinetics of High-Dose Oral versus Intravenous Rifampicin in Patients with Tuberculous Meningitis: a Randomized Controlled Trial.” Antimicrobial agents and chemotherapy (2021). PMID: 33972248 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Landmark Trials and Key Evidence
  205. [205]

    Cresswell FV, Meya DB, Kagimu E et al.. “High-Dose Oral and Intravenous Rifampicin for the Treatment of Tuberculous Meningitis in Predominantly Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)-Positive Ugandan Adults: A Phase II Open-Label Randomized Controlled Trial.” Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America (2021). PMID: 33693537 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Landmark Trials and Key Evidence
  206. [206]

    Pett SL, Spyer M, Haddow LJ et al.. “Benefits of enhanced infection prophylaxis at antiretroviral therapy initiation by cryptococcal antigen status.” AIDS (London, England) (2021). PMID: 33306556 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Landmark Trials and Key Evidence
  207. [207]

    Soul JS, Bergin AM, Stopp C et al.. “A Pilot Randomized, Controlled, Double-Blind Trial of Bumetanide to Treat Neonatal Seizures.” Annals of neurology (2021). PMID: 33201535 ↗

    L1bRCTCited in: Landmark Trials and Key Evidence
  208. [208]

    Dixon S, Ashby S, Kuhne C et al.. “The motor optimality of infants who have had Meningitis in the first months of life: A retrospective study.” Early human development (2026). PMID: 41506216 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Special Populations
  209. [209]

    Govender NP, Greene GS, Hullsiek KH et al.. “Effectiveness of a National Reflex Laboratory Cryptococcal Antigen Screening Program for People With Advanced HIV Disease in South Africa: A Nationwide-Sampled Cohort Study (CAST-NET).” Journal of acquired immune deficiency syndromes (1999) (2025). PMID: 40663428 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Special Populations
  210. [210]

    Krishnegowda VK, Bandiya P, Nanda D et al.. “Cerebrospinal Procalcitonin for Diagnosing Meningitis in Infants Less Than 90 Days: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis.” Indian pediatrics (2025). PMID: 41060555 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Special Populations
  211. [211]

    Falconer J, Mmotsa TM, Govender NP et al.. “Diagnosis of cryptococcal meningitis in people living with HIV in low-income countries: barriers and strategies.” Expert review of anti-infective therapy (2025). PMID: 40874873 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Special Populations
  212. [212]

    Kitaya S, Otani H, Yanagi M et al.. “Campylobacter fetus meningitis and bacteremia: A case report in a post-liver transplant and post-splenectomy patient and a restructured literature review.” Journal of infection and chemotherapy : official journal of the Japan Society of Chemotherapy (2025). PMID: 41241280 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Special Populations
  213. [213]

    Kay AW, Madison M, Scandrett K et al.. “Xpert MTB/RIF Ultra assay for tuberculosis disease and rifampicin resistance in children.” The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2025). PMID: 41128098 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Special Populations
  214. [214]

    Al Reesi MS, Muttawa LAA, Albolushi MA et al.. “Elizabethkingia Infections - An Important Emerging Cause of Sepsis and Meningitis in Neonates and Infants: Case Series from North Batinah Region, Oman, and literature review.” Sultan Qaboos University medical journal (2025). PMID: 40979593 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Special Populations
  215. [215]

    Clark D, Barranco-Trabi J, Goo I et al.. “Single-Dose Liposomal Amphotericin Plus Fluconazole and Flucytosine for Cryptococcal Meningitis at a US Public Hospital.” JAMA network open (2026). PMID: 41563759 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Special Populations
  216. [216]

    Mwamba TM, Blasich NP, Coetzee LM et al.. “Cryptococcal antigen titers and semi-quantitative assay scores among people with HIV-associated cryptococcal antigenemia.” Journal of clinical microbiology (2026). PMID: 41537580 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Special Populations
  217. [217]

    Atefi A, Ghanaatpisheh A, Ghasemi A et al.. “Meningitis after COVID-19 vaccination, a systematic review of case reports and case series.” BMC infectious diseases (2024). PMID: 39390499 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Prevention and Screening
  218. [218]

    Ramachandran P, Grose C. “Serious neurological adverse events in immunocompetent children and adolescents caused by viral reactivation in the years following varicella vaccination.” Reviews in medical virology (2024). PMID: 38658176 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Prevention and Screening
  219. [219]

    Taiyeb Khosroshahi M, Hamidi S, Kangari P et al.. “Post-COVID-19 Vaccination Meningitis and Meningoencephalitis: A Systematic Review of Case Series and Case Reports.” The American journal of tropical medicine and hygiene (2025). PMID: 39437771 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Prevention and Screening
  220. [220]

    Tripathi N, Mukherjee S. “Efficacy and Prolonged Safety of Haemophilus influenzae Type b Conjugate Vaccines.” Infectious disorders drug targets (2024). PMID: 38231056 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Prevention and Screening
  221. [221]

    Truong HC, Phan TV, Nguyen HT et al.. “Clinical features and antibiotic resistance in pediatric pneumococcal meningitis in Southern Vietnam, 2012-2023: A multicenter retrospective study.” Journal of infection and public health (2025). PMID: 40318609 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Prevention and Screening
  222. [222]

    Asante KP, Bozonnat MC, Savic M et al.. “Incidence rates of malaria, meningitis, and mortality in children younger than 5 years: a prospective cohort study in Ghana and Kenya before the roll-out of the RTS,S/AS01E malaria vaccine from 2016 to 2022.” The Lancet. Global health (2025). PMID: 40288396 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Prevention and Screening
  223. [223]

    Bjar N, Hermansson A, Gisselsson-Solen M. “How common is otogenic meningitis? A retrospective study in southern Sweden over 18 years.” Infection (2024). PMID: 38416397 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Prevention and Screening
  224. [224]

    Anosike C, Ojiakor IM, Etiaba EI et al.. “Cost-effectiveness and budget impact of malaria, measles, and meningitis vaccines in Africa: a scoping review.” Vaccine (2025). PMID: 41110197 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Prevention and Screening
  225. [225]

    Ewing A, Haldeman S, Ratner AJ. “Clinical progress note: Haemophilus influenzae type b.” Journal of hospital medicine (2025). PMID: 40205699 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Prevention and Screening
  226. [226]

    Alexander NG, Cutts WD, Hooven TA et al.. “Mechanisms and Manifestations of Group B Streptococcus Meningitis in Newborns.” Journal of the Pediatric Infectious Diseases Society (2025). PMID: 39927629 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Prevention and Screening
  227. [227]

    Xu Y, Wang J, Qin X et al.. “Advances in the pathogenesis and treatment of pneumococcal meningitis.” Virulence (2024). PMID: 39192572 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Prevention and Screening
  228. [228]

    Gil-Prieto R, Hernandez-Barrera V, Marín-García P et al.. “Hospital burden of pneumococcal disease in Spain (2016-2022): A retrospective study.” Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics (2025). PMID: 39786144 ↗

    L2bCOHORTCited in: Prevention and Screening
  229. [229]

    Park JJ, Tiefenbach J, Anwar MM et al.. “Estimating the Global and Regional Burden of Streptococcus pneumoniae Meningitis in Children: Protocol for a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” JMIR research protocols (2024). PMID: 39012685 ↗

    L2aSR_OBSCited in: Prevention and Screening
  230. [230]

    Mikami S, Ishii M, Yano T et al.. “Multifocal meningoencephalitis after vaccination against COVID-19.” Pathology international (2024). PMID: 39570102 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Prevention and Screening
  231. [231]

    Kim JH, Yoon D, Ko HY et al.. “Risk of encephalitis and meningitis after COVID-19 vaccination in South Korea: a self-controlled case series analysis.” BMC medicine (2024). PMID: 38486297 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Prevention and Screening
  232. [232]

    Alderson MR, Regan K, Martellet L et al.. “Development of MenFive®, an affordable pentavalent meningococcal conjugate vaccine (ACYWX) for Africa and beyond.” Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics (2025). PMID: 40968077 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Prevention and Screening
  233. [233]

    Kato Y, Osada T, Araki N et al.. “Aseptic Meningitis after BNT-162b2 COVID-19 Vaccination: Case Report and Literature Review.” The Keio journal of medicine (2023). PMID: 37743529 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Prevention and Screening
  234. [234]

    Carnalla-Barajas MN, Soto-Noguerón A, Solórzano-Santos F et al.. “Pneumococcal meningitis in Mexico. Serotype distribution and antimicrobial resistance before and after the introduction of pneumococcal conjugate vaccines in pediatric patients. Results from the GIVEBPVac group.” Journal of infection and public health (2026). PMID: 41223711 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Prevention and Screening
  235. [235]

    Abad R, Navarro C, García-Amil C et al.. “Outbreak of invasive meningococcal disease caused by a meningococcus serogroup B expressing a rare porA genosubtype (19-54, 15), Spain, March to April 2024.” Euro surveillance : bulletin Europeen sur les maladies transmissibles = European communicable disease bulletin (2025). PMID: 41199706 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Prevention and Screening
  236. [236]

    Kang MS, Lee SH, Jung SI et al.. “Shift from Streptococcus pneumoniae to Klebsiella pneumoniae: a 15-year nationwide study of bacterial meningitis in Korea.” International journal of infectious diseases : IJID : official publication of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (2025). PMID: 41076061 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Prevention and Screening
  237. [237]

    Campbell H, Lucidarme J, Clark SA et al.. “Increase in serogroup W invasive meningococcal disease in England associated with pilgrimage to Saudi Arabia, January 2024 to June 2025.” Euro surveillance : bulletin Europeen sur les maladies transmissibles = European communicable disease bulletin (2025). PMID: 40776896 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Prevention and Screening
  238. [238]

    Lee IG, Lee J, Kim HR et al.. “Galectin-4 potentiates CD8+ T cell immunity by enhancing MHC-I expression on dendritic cells.” Molecular therapy : the journal of the American Society of Gene Therapy (2025). PMID: 40589087 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Prevention and Screening
  239. [239]

    Donovan J, Cresswell FV, Tucker EW et al.. “A clinical practice guideline for tuberculous meningitis.” The Lancet. Infectious diseases (2026). PMID: 40840485 ↗

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources
  240. [240]

    Malmgren A, Orfanos I, Smedbäck J et al.. “The Swedish Society of Paediatric Infectious Diseases' 2025 Recommendations for the Initial Management of Suspected Paediatric Sepsis With or Without Shock.” Acta paediatrica (Oslo, Norway : 1992) (2025). PMID: 40719519 ↗

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources
  241. [241]

    Silverstein M, Wong JB, Davis EM et al.. “Screening for Syphilis Infection During Pregnancy: US Preventive Services Task Force Reaffirmation Recommendation Statement.” JAMA (2025). PMID: 40358930 ↗

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources
  242. [242]

    Chang CC, Harrison TS, Bicanic TA et al.. “Global guideline for the diagnosis and management of cryptococcosis: an initiative of the ECMM and ISHAM in cooperation with the ASM.” The Lancet. Infectious diseases (2024). PMID: 38346436 ↗

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources
  243. [243]

    Cook AM, Morgan Jones G, Hawryluk GWJ et al.. “Guidelines for the Acute Treatment of Cerebral Edema in Neurocritical Care Patients.” Neurocritical care (2020). PMID: 32227294 ↗

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources
  244. [244]

    Beier AD, Nikas DC, Assassi N et al.. “Congress of Neurological Surgeons Systematic Review and Evidence-Based Guideline on Closure of Myelomeningocele Within 48 Hours to Decrease Infection Risk.” Neurosurgery (2019). PMID: 31418041 ↗

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources
  245. [245]

    . “Committee Opinion No. 712: Intrapartum Management of Intraamniotic Infection.” Obstetrics and gynecology (2017). PMID: 28742677 ↗

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources
  246. [246]

    . “Committee Opinion No. 712 Summary: Intrapartum Management of Intraamniotic Infection.” Obstetrics and gynecology (2017). PMID: 28742671 ↗

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources
  247. [247]

    Vergnano S, Buttery J, Cailes B et al.. “Neonatal infections: Case definition and guidelines for data collection, analysis, and presentation of immunisation safety data.” Vaccine (2016). PMID: 27491687 ↗

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources
  248. [248]

    McGill F, Heyderman RS, Michael BD et al.. “The UK joint specialist societies guideline on the diagnosis and management of acute meningitis and meningococcal sepsis in immunocompetent adults.” The Journal of infection (2016). PMID: 26845731 ↗

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources
  249. [249]

    Bower WA, Hendricks K, Pillai S et al.. “Clinical Framework and Medical Countermeasure Use During an Anthrax Mass-Casualty Incident.” MMWR. Recommendations and reports : Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Recommendations and reports (2015). PMID: 26632963 ↗

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources
  250. [250]

    Mazzola CA, Choudhri AF, Auguste KI et al.. “Pediatric hydrocephalus: systematic literature review and evidence-based guidelines. Part 2: Management of posthemorrhagic hydrocephalus in premature infants.” Journal of neurosurgery. Pediatrics (2014). PMID: 25988778 ↗

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources
  251. [251]

    . “Committee Opinion No. 614: Management of pregnant women with presumptive exposure to Listeria monocytogenes.” Obstetrics and gynecology (2014). PMID: 25411758 ↗

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources
  252. [252]

    Solomon T, Michael BD, Smith PE et al.. “Management of suspected viral encephalitis in adults--Association of British Neurologists and British Infection Association National Guidelines.” The Journal of infection (2012). PMID: 22120595 ↗

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources
  253. [253]

    Kneen R, Michael BD, Menson E et al.. “Management of suspected viral encephalitis in children - Association of British Neurologists and British Paediatric Allergy, Immunology and Infection Group national guidelines.” The Journal of infection (2012). PMID: 22120594 ↗

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources
  254. [254]

    . “Updated recommendations for prevention of invasive pneumococcal disease among adults using the 23-valent pneumococcal polysaccharide vaccine (PPSV23).” MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report (2010). PMID: 20814406 ↗

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources
  255. [255]

    Bertsias GK, Ioannidis JP, Aringer M et al.. “EULAR recommendations for the management of systemic lupus erythematosus with neuropsychiatric manifestations: report of a task force of the EULAR standing committee for clinical affairs.” Annals of the rheumatic diseases (2010). PMID: 20724309 ↗

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources
  256. [256]

    Wright JG, Quinn CP, Shadomy S et al.. “Use of anthrax vaccine in the United States: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP), 2009.” MMWR. Recommendations and reports : Morbidity and mortality weekly report. Recommendations and reports (2010). PMID: 20651644 ↗

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources
  257. [257]

    Mygland A, Ljøstad U, Fingerle V et al.. “EFNS guidelines on the diagnosis and management of European Lyme neuroborreliosis.” European journal of neurology (2010). PMID: 19930447 ↗

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources
  258. [258]

    Thwaites G, Fisher M, Hemingway C et al.. “British Infection Society guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of tuberculosis of the central nervous system in adults and children.” The Journal of infection (2009). PMID: 19643501 ↗

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources
  259. [259]

    Chaudhuri A, Martinez-Martin P, Kennedy PG et al.. “EFNS guideline on the management of community-acquired bacterial meningitis: report of an EFNS Task Force on acute bacterial meningitis in older children and adults.” European journal of neurology (2008). PMID: 18582342 ↗

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources
  260. [260]

    Halperin JJ, Shapiro ED, Logigian E et al.. “Practice parameter: treatment of nervous system Lyme disease (an evidence-based review): report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology [RETIRED].” Neurology (2007). PMID: 17522387 ↗

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources
  261. [261]

    . “Prevention of pertussis among adolescents: recommendations for use of tetanus toxoid, reduced diphtheria toxoid, and acellular pertussis (Tdap) vaccine.” Pediatrics (2006). PMID: 16382131 ↗

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources
  262. [262]

    Rauer S, Kastenbauer S, Dersch R et al.. “Guidelines for diagnosis and treatment in neurology - Lyme neuroborreliosis.” German medical science : GMS e-journal (2025). PMID: 41195425 ↗

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources
  263. [263]

    Schwarz Chavarri G, Sánchez Hernández C, Moreno Millán N et al.. “[Infectious Disease Prevention Group. Update on vaccines, 2020].” Atencion primaria (2020). PMID: 33388119 ↗

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources
  264. [264]

    Rauer S, Kastenbauer S, Hofmann H et al.. “Guidelines for diagnosis and treatment in neurology - Lyme neuroborreliosis.” German medical science : GMS e-journal (2020). PMID: 32341686 ↗

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources
  265. [265]

    Tanaka Y, Kuwana M, Fujii T et al.. “2019 Diagnostic criteria for mixed connective tissue disease (MCTD): From the Japan research committee of the ministry of health, labor, and welfare for systemic autoimmune diseases.” Modern rheumatology (2021). PMID: 31903831 ↗

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources
  266. [266]

    Truffert E, Fournier Charrière E, Treluyer JM et al.. “Guidelines of the French Society of Otorhinolaryngology (SFORL): Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and pediatric ENT infections. Short version.” European annals of otorhinolaryngology, head and neck diseases (2019). PMID: 31420238 ↗

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources
  267. [267]

    Risser A, Donovan D, Heintzman J et al.. “NSAID prescribing precautions.” American family physician (2009). PMID: 20000300 ↗

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources
  268. [268]

    Martins B, Canelas G, Dias R et al.. “[Diagnostic, Therapeutic and Monitoring Approach in Suspected Neurosyphilis: Proposal for a Clinical Guideline].” Acta medica portuguesa (2024). PMID: 39622197 ↗

    L1cGUIDELINECited in: Guidelines and Resources

Revision History

All updates applied to this page

Loading revisions…