Skip to main content
WoMWeb of Medicine
SearchGraphHistory
Endocrinology›Condition·Updated Jul 11, 2026·v1

Graves Disease

Graves disease is an autoimmune hyperthyroid state driven by TRAb, affecting 0.2-1.3% of the population with rising incidence. Diagnosis is confirmed by suppressed TSH, elevated FT4/T3, and positive TRAb. Management begins with methimazole (or PTU in pregnancy) plus beta-blockers, with a course of 12-18 months or longer (≥5 years) for higher remission. Definitive therapy with RAI or thyroidectomy is reserved for relapse or contraindications. Graves orbitopathy requires independent staging by CAS and may be treated with teprotumumab, glucocorticoids, or surgery in sight-threatening cases. Outcomes are good with timely treatment, but persistent TSH suppression carries increased mortality risk.

High Evidence246 references·9,411 words·38 min read·v1
Graves diseasehyperthyroidismautoimmune thyroid diseasethyroid eye diseaseTRAbmethimazoleteprotumumab

Quick Reference

RxDrug of choiceMethimazole 10-40 mg PO daily (initial), then 2.5-10 mg maintenance
AltAlternativesPropylthiouracil (PTU) 100-300 mg daily in divided doses (first-trimester pregnancy, MMI intolerance); Radioactive iodine (¹³¹I) 10-15 mCi; Total thyroidectomy; Teprotumumab for moderate-to-severe active TED
⊘AvoidIodine before antithyroid drug loading in thyroid storm; RAI without steroid prophylaxis if active TED; Non-dihydropyridine CCBs (verapamil, diltiazem) exacerbate heart failure in thyrotoxicosis
DxTest of choiceTRAb by second/third-generation immunoassay (confirms autoimmune etiology with >95% sensitivity)
ScKey scoreClinical Activity Score (CAS) for Graves orbitopathy, ≥4 indicates active disease requiring immunosuppression
→When to referOphthalmology for CAS ≥4, vision changes, or proptosis; Surgery if large goiter (≥80 g), compressive symptoms, or moderate-to-severe TED; Endocrinology for refractory disease or pregnancy management
Graves disease is diagnosed by suppressed TSH + elevated FT4/T3 + positive TRAb. First-line treatment is methimazole 10-40 mg daily, with beta-blocker for symptoms. Definitive therapy (RAI or surgery) is reserved for relapse, large goiter, or contraindications to ATD. TED requires risk stratification with CAS and may be treated with teprotumumab or corticosteroids. Long-term ATD (≥5 years) is a safe alternative with higher remission rates.
Graves disease is the most common cause of hyperthyroidism, accounting for ~70% of cases in iodine-sufficient regions. It is an autoimmune disorder driven by thyroid-stimulating hormone receptor antibodies (TRAb) that mimic TSH, leading to unregulated thyroid hormone synthesis, diffuse goiter, and frequent extrathyroidal manifestations, most importantly Graves orbitopathy (TED). Diagnosis relies on suppressed TSH with elevated free T4/T3 and confirmed by positive TRAb. Management centers on antithyroid drugs (methimazole as first-line), radioactive iodine, or thyroidectomy, with a new paradigm favoring long-term ATD (≥5 years) for many patients. TED requires independent staging with the Clinical Activity Score (CAS) and may be treated with teprotumumab or corticosteroids.

Overview and Recommendations

Background

  • •Graves disease is an autoimmune disorder in which thyrotropin receptor antibodies (TRAb) mimic TSH, driving unregulated thyroid hormone synthesis and release, the quintessential cause of primary hyperthyroidism. It accounts for approximately 70% of hyperthyroidism cases in iodine-sufficient regions, with a global prevalence of 0.2-1.3%.
  • •Annual incidence in Sweden is 21.0 per 100,000 with a female-to-male ratio of 4.2:1; pediatric incidence in the US is 3.33 per 100,000, highest among adolescents. Incidence doubled in the UK over two decades (2000-2019), a trend not explained by diagnostic changes alone.
  • •TRAb binds to the TSHR on thyrocytes, constitutively activating Gs-adenylyl cyclase-cAMP signaling and bypassing normal negative feedback. The same receptor is expressed on orbital fibroblasts and preadipocytes, where TSHR-IGF-1R complex signaling triggers inflammation and remodeling underlying Graves orbitopathy (TED).
  • •Key clinical variants include classic GD with diffuse goiter, Graves orbitopathy (TED) in up to 50% of patients, Graves dermopathy (<5%), and rare forms such as IgG4-related GD, Marine-Lenhart syndrome, and alemtuzumab-induced GD. Up to two-thirds develop at least mild TED, which significantly impacts quality of life.
  • •Genetic susceptibility (HLA-DR, CTLA-4), female sex, smoking, iodine excess, and environmental triggers (e.g., viral infections, postpartum state) cooperate to break immune tolerance. Smoking is the strongest modifiable risk factor and doubles the risk of relapse and TED progression.

Evaluation

  • •Suspect Graves disease in any patient with symptoms of hypermetabolism: weight loss despite increased appetite, heat intolerance, palpitations, fine tremor, hyperdefecation, irritability, and proximal muscle weakness. Elderly patients may present with atrial fibrillation, dyspnea, or apathetic hyperthyroidism.
  • •Ask about family history of autoimmune disease (thyroid, type 1 diabetes, Addison's), smoking status, recent viral illness or vaccination, pregnancy planning, and prior thyroid or autoimmune conditions.
  • •Examine for a symmetrically enlarged, firm thyroid with a palpable bruit (hypervascularity). Look for ocular signs of TED: lid retraction (Dalrymple sign), lid lag (von Graefe sign), proptosis, conjunctival injection, periorbital edema, and assess extraocular movements for diplopia.
  • •Examine the skin: warm, moist skin, pretibial myxedema (pink or brown indurated plaques on shins), and rarely acropachy (digital clubbing). Check for fine resting tremor, hyperreflexia with rapid relaxation, and proximal myopathy.
  • •Order TSH as the first-line screening test. If suppressed (<0.4 mIU/L), measure free T4 and free T3 from the same sample. Overt hyperthyroidism is defined by suppressed TSH with elevated FT4 and/or FT3.
  • •Confirm etiology with TRAb measurement using a second- or third-generation immunoassay. A positive TRAb (>6 IU/L in most assays) confirms Graves disease with >95% sensitivity and ~100% specificity when hyperthyroidism is present, and obviates the need for thyroid scintigraphy in most patients.
  • •If TRAb is negative, perform thyroid ultrasound to assess goiter size, vascularity ("thyroid inferno" on color Doppler), and rule out nodules. Scintigraphy (⁹⁹ᵐTc or ¹²³I) is reserved for TRAb-negative cases to distinguish high-uptake GD from low-uptake thyroiditis or focal toxic nodule.
  • •At diagnosis, document baseline severity: FT4 ≥40 pmol/L, TBII >6 U/L, goiter ≥WHO grade 2 predict higher relapse risk. Assess for TED using the Clinical Activity Score (CAS): ≥4 indicates active disease and warrants ophthalmology referral.
  • •Consider additional testing: TPOAb (elevated in ~80%, supportive but not diagnostic), electrocardiogram to screen for atrial fibrillation, and baseline CBC/LFT before starting antithyroid drugs. In pregnancy, use ultrasound + TRAb (scintigraphy contraindicated).
  • •Red flags for thyroid storm: fever >38.5°C, tachycardia >140/min, altered mental status, GI symptoms. Suspect dysthyroid optic neuropathy if acute vision loss or color desaturation, requires emergent ophthalmic assessment.

Management

  • •Initiate methimazole (MMI) as first-line antithyroid drug (ATD) at 10-40 mg PO once daily, titrated to FT4 within 4-8 weeks, then reduce to maintenance 2.5-10 mg daily. Propylthiouracil (PTU) 100-300 mg daily in 3 divided doses is reserved for first-trimester pregnancy or MMI intolerance.
  • •Add beta-blocker for symptom control: propranolol 20-40 mg every 6-8 hours or atenolol 25-100 mg daily until euthyroid. Titrate to heart rate <90 bpm.
  • •Standard ATD course is 12-18 months; withdraw if euthyroid with normalized TRAb. Relapse occurs in ~50% after withdrawal. Long-term ATD (≥5 years) is safe and effective, with remission rates approaching 75%, discuss this option especially in young adults with moderate disease who wish to avoid lifelong hypothyroidism.
  • •For relapse after ATD withdrawal, options include a second course (especially with low-dose taper to MMI 2.5 mg every other day and high-normal TSH at withdrawal yields higher remission) or proceed to definitive therapy.
  • •Radioactive iodine (RAI, ¹³¹I 10-15 mCi) achieves euthyroidism/hypothyroidism in 50-90% within 6-12 months. Counsel lifelong levothyroxine replacement. Mandatory steroid prophylaxis (prednisone 0.4-0.5 mg/kg/day tapered over 3 months) if given with mild active TED or risk factors (smoking, high TRAb).
  • •Total thyroidectomy is recommended for large goiter (≥80 g), compressive symptoms, moderate-to-severe TED, or when RAI is contraindicated. Preoperative preparation: achieve euthyroidism with ATD, then Lugol's iodine 5-10 drops daily for 10 days to reduce vascularity. Perform by high-volume surgeon.
  • •For active moderate-to-severe TED: first-line teprotumumab (10 mg/kg first IV dose, then 20 mg/kg every 3 weeks for 8 total infusions). Alternatives: intravenous glucocorticoids ± mycophenolate, or tocilizumab 8 mg/kg IV every 4 weeks for 4 doses in glucocorticoid-resistant cases.
  • •Thyroid storm management: simultaneous blockade of four pathways, beta blocker (propranolol), antithyroid drug (MMI or PTU loading), corticosteroid (hydrocortisone 100 mg IV q8h or dexamethasone), and iodine (SSKI or Lugol's) given at least 1 hour after ATD loading. Admit to ICU; monitor HR, temperature, mental status, and end-organ function hourly.
  • •Monitor: check FT4, TSH, CBC, LFT at 4-6 week intervals during ATD titration. After RAI or surgery, check thyroid function at 4-6 weeks then every 3-6 months; start levothyroxine 1.6 μg/kg daily if hypothyroid, targeting TSH 0.5-2.5 mIU/L.
  • •Avoid: giving iodine before ATD loading in storm; using RAI without steroid prophylaxis in active TED; using methimazole in first trimester without switching to PTU; attempting surgery without achieving euthyroidism.

Board Review — High Yield

  • •TRAb (TSH receptor antibody), hallmark of Graves disease; present in >95% of untreated patients; levels predict relapse and neonatal risk.
  • •Thyroid inferno, diffuse increased vascularity on color Doppler ultrasound; classic for Graves disease.
  • •Clinical Activity Score (CAS) ≥4, indicates active Graves orbitopathy; threshold for initiating immunosuppression (teprotumumab or corticosteroids).
  • •Methimazole 10-40 mg daily, first-line antithyroid drug; PTU reserved for first-trimester pregnancy due to teratogenicity concerns.
  • •Block-replace vs titration, titration preferred due to fewer adverse events; no difference in remission rates.
  • •Thyroid storm, life-threatening emergency; treat with beta blocker + ATD + corticosteroid + iodine (after ATD) simultaneously.
  • •Smoking, strongest modifiable risk factor for both relapse and progression of Graves orbitopathy; counsel cessation.
  • •Long-term ATD (≥5 years), safe alternative to definitive therapy with remission rates approaching 75%; major complication rate only 1.5%.
  • •Teprotumumab, first-line for moderate-to-severe active TED; proptosis response ~69% vs 20% placebo; given as IV infusion every 3 weeks x 8 doses.
  • •Postpartum Graves disease, de novo GD can present in first year after delivery; ATD choice: PTU in first trimester then switch to MMI.

Deep Dive — Evidence Details

References

  1. [1]

    Nemiroff S, Chai R, Fan J et al.. “Ectopic Cervical Thymoma in a Patient Diagnosed With Graves Disease: A Systematic Literature Review.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2024). PMID: 37897424 ↗

    L4SR_OBSCited in: Definition, Classification and Axis Nomenclature
  2. [2]

    van Lieshout JM, Mooij CF, van Trotsenburg ASP et al.. “Methimazole-induced remission rates in pediatric Graves' disease: a systematic review.” European journal of endocrinology (2021). PMID: 34061770 ↗

    L2SR_OBSCited in: Definition, Classification and Axis Nomenclature, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive), Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention, Special Populations, Pregnancy and Fertility
  3. [3]

    Chou YT, Lai CC, Li CY et al.. “Statin Use and the Risk of Graves' Orbitopathy: A Nationwide Population-Based Cohort Study.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2025). PMID: 39804287 ↗

    L2COHORTCited in: Definition, Classification and Axis Nomenclature, Epidemiology, Etiology and Risk Factors, Severity, Staging and Risk Stratification, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive), Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention
  4. [4]

    Suzuki N, Watanabe N, Noh JY et al.. “The Relationship Between Primary Thyroid Lymphoma and Various Types of Thyroid Autoimmunity: A Retrospective Cohort Study of 498 Cases, Including 9 Cases with Graves' Disease.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2022). PMID: 35229626 ↗

    L2COHORTCited in: Definition, Classification and Axis Nomenclature, Clinical Presentation
  5. [5]

    Vera-Lastra O, Ordinola Navarro A, Cruz Domiguez MP et al.. “Two Cases of Graves' Disease Following SARS-CoV-2 Vaccination: An Autoimmune/Inflammatory Syndrome Induced by Adjuvants.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2021). PMID: 33858208 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Definition, Classification and Axis Nomenclature, Acute Management and Endocrine Emergencies, Multiglandular Syndromes, Genetic Context and Co-Axis Effects
  6. [6]

    Smith TJ, Holt RJ, Fu Q et al.. “Assessment of Hearing Dysfunction in Patients With Graves' Disease and Thyroid Eye Disease Without or With Teprotumumab.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2025). PMID: 39138817 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Definition, Classification and Axis Nomenclature, Acute Management and Endocrine Emergencies
  7. [7]

    Minich WB, Dehina N, Welsink T et al.. “Autoantibodies to the IGF1 receptor in Graves' orbitopathy.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2012). PMID: 23264397 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Definition, Classification and Axis Nomenclature
  8. [8]

    Polkampally S, Halagur AS, Green A et al.. “Incidence of Pediatric Graves' Disease in the United States: An Epidemiological Analysis of 2007-2022 Outpatient Insurance Claims.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2025). PMID: 40982291 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Definition, Classification and Axis Nomenclature, Epidemiology, Etiology and Risk Factors, Special Populations, Pregnancy and Fertility
  9. [9]

    Burlacu MC, Bednarczuk T, Lee V et al.. “Mild Thyroid Eye Disease-The Most Common yet the Least Studied Presentation of Thyroid Eye Disease.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2026). PMID: 42370743 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Definition, Classification and Axis Nomenclature, Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, Severity, Staging and Risk Stratification, History and Evolution of Treatment
  10. [10]

    Edmunds MR, Denniston AK, Boelaert K et al.. “Patient information in Graves' disease and thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy: readability assessment of online resources.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2013). PMID: 24040878 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: Definition, Classification and Axis Nomenclature
  11. [11]

    Rotondi M, Carbone A, Coperchini F et al.. “DIAGNOSIS OF ENDOCRINE DISEASE: IgG4-related thyroid autoimmune disease.” European journal of endocrinology (2019). PMID: 30889549 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Definition, Classification and Axis Nomenclature, Epidemiology, Etiology and Risk Factors, Clinical Presentation, Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization
  12. [12]

    Toro-Tobon D, Stan MN. “The evolving landscape of thyroid eye disease: present and future.” European journal of endocrinology (2025). PMID: 40794607 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Definition, Classification and Axis Nomenclature, Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Severity, Staging and Risk Stratification, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive)
  13. [13]

    Choi JE, Oh J, Song DK et al.. “Air pollution and risk of autoimmune thyroid diseases in children and adolescents: Findings from a nationwide cohort study in Korea.” Ecotoxicology and environmental safety (2026). PMID: 41601047 ↗

    L2COHORTCited in: Definition, Classification and Axis Nomenclature, Epidemiology, Etiology and Risk Factors, Severity, Staging and Risk Stratification
  14. [14]

    Wang X, Li T, Li Y et al.. “Enhanced predictive validity of integrative models for refractory hyperthyroidism considering baseline and early therapy characteristics: a prospective cohort study.” Journal of translational medicine (2024). PMID: 38553734 ↗

    L2COHORTCited in: Definition, Classification and Axis Nomenclature
  15. [15]

    Chatproedprai S, Tiasiri N, Chantawarangkul K et al.. “Pediatric drug reaction with eosinophilia and systemic symptoms: A 12-year retrospective study in a tertiary center.” The Journal of dermatology (2024). PMID: 38214543 ↗

    L4COHORTCited in: Definition, Classification and Axis Nomenclature
  16. [16]

    Korevaar TIM, Leung AM, Alexander EK et al.. “American Thyroid Association 2026 Guidelines for Thyroid Disease in Preconception, Pregnancy, and Postpartum.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2026). PMID: 42219800 ↗

    L1GUIDELINECited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, Severity, Staging and Risk Stratification, History and Evolution of Treatment, Special Populations, Pregnancy and Fertility
  17. [17]

    Bartalena L, Kahaly GJ, Baldeschi L et al.. “The 2021 European Group on Graves' orbitopathy (EUGOGO) clinical practice guidelines for the medical management of Graves' orbitopathy.” European journal of endocrinology (2021). PMID: 34297684 ↗

    L1GUIDELINECited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Epidemiology, Etiology and Risk Factors, Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, Severity, Staging and Risk Stratification, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive), History and Evolution of Treatment
  18. [18]

    Douglas RS, Couch S, Wester ST et al.. “Efficacy and Safety of Teprotumumab in Patients With Thyroid Eye Disease of Long Duration and Low Disease Activity.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2023). PMID: 37925673 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Acute Management and Endocrine Emergencies, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive), History and Evolution of Treatment
  19. [19]

    Laurberg P, Wallin G, Tallstedt L et al.. “TSH-receptor autoimmunity in Graves' disease after therapy with anti-thyroid drugs, surgery, or radioiodine: a 5-year prospective randomized study.” European journal of endocrinology (2008). PMID: 18166819 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, History and Evolution of Treatment, Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention
  20. [20]

    Kahaly GJ, Subramanian PS, Conrad E et al.. “Long-Term Efficacy of Teprotumumab in Thyroid Eye Disease: Follow-Up Outcomes in Three Clinical Trials.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2024). PMID: 38824618 ↗

    L2TRIAL_NONRANDOMCited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Clinical Presentation, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive)
  21. [21]

    Kahaly GJ, Douglas RS, Holt RJ et al.. “Teprotumumab for patients with active thyroid eye disease: a pooled data analysis, subgroup analyses, and off-treatment follow-up results from two randomised, double-masked, placebo-controlled, multicentre trials.” The lancet. Diabetes & endocrinology (2021). PMID: 33865501 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, Severity, Staging and Risk Stratification, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive), History and Evolution of Treatment
  22. [22]

    Smith TJ, Kahaly GJ, Ezra DG et al.. “Teprotumumab for Thyroid-Associated Ophthalmopathy.” The New England journal of medicine (2017). PMID: 28467880 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive), History and Evolution of Treatment
  23. [23]

    Besançon A, Beltrand J, Le Gac I et al.. “Management of neonates born to women with Graves' disease: a cohort study.” European journal of endocrinology (2014). PMID: 24670885 ↗

    L2COHORTCited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive), Complications and Long-term Sequelae, Special Populations, Pregnancy and Fertility
  24. [24]

    Okosieme OE, Taylor PN, Evans C et al.. “Primary therapy of Graves' disease and cardiovascular morbidity and mortality: a linked-record cohort study.” The lancet. Diabetes & endocrinology (2019). PMID: 30827829 ↗

    L2COHORTCited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive), History and Evolution of Treatment, Complications and Long-term Sequelae, Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention
  25. [25]

    Azizi F, Mehran L, Abdi H et al.. “Approach to the Patient Considering Long-term Antithyroid Drug Therapy for Graves' Disease.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2024). PMID: 39018185 ↗

    L5CASE_REPORTCited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive), Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention
  26. [26]

    Léger J, Delcour C, Carel JC. “Fetal and Neonatal Thyroid Dysfunction.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2022). PMID: 34636892 ↗

    L5CASE_REPORTCited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, Severity, Staging and Risk Stratification, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive), History and Evolution of Treatment, Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention
  27. [27]

    Kahaly GJ. “Management of Graves Thyroidal and Extrathyroidal Disease: An Update.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2020). PMID: 32929476 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Clinical Presentation, Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive), Complications and Long-term Sequelae, Special Populations, Pregnancy and Fertility
  28. [28]

    Barbesino G, Salvi M, Freitag SK. “Future Projections in Thyroid Eye Disease.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2022). PMID: 36346684 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Acute Management and Endocrine Emergencies, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive)
  29. [29]

    Stan MN, Toro-Tobon D. “Graves' disease: a new era of pathophysiology-guided therapeutics.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2026). PMID: 41530911 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive), Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention
  30. [30]

    Villagelin D, Cooper DS, Burch HB. “A 2023 International Survey of Clinical Practice Patterns in the Management of Graves Disease: A Decade of Change.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2024). PMID: 38577717 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, Special Populations, Pregnancy and Fertility
  31. [31]

    Biscarini F, Masetti G, Muller I et al.. “Gut Microbiome Associated With Graves Disease and Graves Orbitopathy: The INDIGO Multicenter European Study.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2023). PMID: 36683389 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, Severity, Staging and Risk Stratification
  32. [32]

    Bao Y, Kim D, Cho YH et al.. “Cre-loxP System-Based Mouse Model for Investigating Graves' Disease and Associated Orbitopathy.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2023). PMID: 37624749 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization
  33. [33]

    Sawin CT, Cooper DS. “The Origin of Antithyroid Drugs.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2023). PMID: 37594736 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive)
  34. [34]

    Xiang P, Latif R, Davies TF. “The Thyrotropin Receptor Antibody Reactome Determines Thyroid and Retro-orbital Responsiveness.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2025). PMID: 40654270 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization
  35. [35]

    Rapoport B, McLachlan SM. “The thyrotropin receptor in Graves' disease.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2007). PMID: 17822379 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature
  36. [36]

    McLachlan SM, Alpi K, Rapoport B. “Review and hypothesis: does Graves' disease develop in non-human great apes?” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2011). PMID: 22066476 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, History and Evolution of Treatment
  37. [37]

    Lehmann GM, Feldon SE, Smith TJ et al.. “Immune mechanisms in thyroid eye disease.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2008). PMID: 18752427 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature
  38. [38]

    Piekiełko-Witkowska A, Elisei R, Leger J et al.. “EndoCompass project: research roadmap for thyroid endocrinology.” European journal of endocrinology (2025). PMID: 41104474 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive), Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention
  39. [39]

    Benlarbi H, Simon D, Rosenblatt J et al.. “Prevalence and course of thyroid dysfunction in neonates at high risk of Graves' disease or with non-autoimmune hyperthyroidism.” European journal of endocrinology (2021). PMID: 33465046 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Epidemiology, Etiology and Risk Factors, Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, Special Populations, Pregnancy and Fertility
  40. [40]

    Laurberg P. “Remission of Graves' disease during anti-thyroid drug therapy. Time to reconsider the mechanism?” European journal of endocrinology (2006). PMID: 17132745 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive), Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention
  41. [41]

    Harvengt J, Boizeau P, Chevenne D et al.. “Triiodothyronine-predominant Graves' disease in childhood: detection and therapeutic implications.” European journal of endocrinology (2015). PMID: 25766047 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, Special Populations, Pregnancy and Fertility
  42. [42]

    Wiersinga WM, Poppe KG, Effraimidis G. “Hyperthyroidism: aetiology, pathogenesis, diagnosis, management, complications, and prognosis.” The lancet. Diabetes & endocrinology (2023). PMID: 36848916 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Epidemiology, Etiology and Risk Factors, Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, Severity, Staging and Risk Stratification, Acute Management and Endocrine Emergencies, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive), Complications and Long-term Sequelae, Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention
  43. [43]

    Wiersinga WM. “Advances in treatment of active, moderate-to-severe Graves' ophthalmopathy.” The lancet. Diabetes & endocrinology (2016). PMID: 27346786 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive)
  44. [44]

    Chaker L, Cooper DS, Walsh JP et al.. “Hyperthyroidism.” Lancet (London, England) (2024). PMID: 38278171 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive)
  45. [45]

    Hu Y, Wen M, Wen L et al.. “Comorbid autoimmune disease in stiff-person syndrome spectrum disorder: a systematic review and meta-analysis.” Journal of neurology (2026). PMID: 42390536 ↗

    L2SR_OBSCited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Multiglandular Syndromes, Genetic Context and Co-Axis Effects, Complications and Long-term Sequelae, Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention
  46. [46]

    Ugradar S, Malkhasyan E, Douglas RS. “Teprotumumab for the Treatment of Thyroid Eye Disease.” Endocrine reviews (2024). PMID: 38838219 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Acute Management and Endocrine Emergencies, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive)
  47. [47]

    Lane LC, Cheetham TD, Perros P et al.. “New Therapeutic Horizons for Graves' Hyperthyroidism.” Endocrine reviews (2020). PMID: 32845332 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive)
  48. [48]

    Smith TJ, Janssen JAMJL. “Insulin-like Growth Factor-I Receptor and Thyroid-Associated Ophthalmopathy.” Endocrine reviews (2019). PMID: 30215690 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Severity, Staging and Risk Stratification, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive)
  49. [49]

    Rapoport B, McLachlan SM. “TSH Receptor Cleavage Into Subunits and Shedding of the A-Subunit; A Molecular and Clinical Perspective.” Endocrine reviews (2016). PMID: 26799472 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature
  50. [50]

    McLachlan SM, Rapoport B. “Breaking tolerance to thyroid antigens: changing concepts in thyroid autoimmunity.” Endocrine reviews (2013). PMID: 24091783 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Clinical Presentation, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive)
  51. [51]

    Rotondi M, Chiovato L, Romagnani S et al.. “Role of chemokines in endocrine autoimmune diseases.” Endocrine reviews (2007). PMID: 17475924 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature
  52. [52]

    Liu ZW, Masterson L, Fish B et al.. “Thyroid surgery for Graves' disease and Graves' ophthalmopathy.” The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2015). PMID: 26606533 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Clinical Presentation, Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive), Complications and Long-term Sequelae
  53. [53]

    Kang S, Hamed Azzam S, Minakaran N et al.. “Rituximab for thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy.” The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2022). PMID: 35709102 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Severity, Staging and Risk Stratification, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive), Multiglandular Syndromes, Genetic Context and Co-Axis Effects
  54. [54]

    Minakaran N, Ezra DG. “Rituximab for thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy.” The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2013). PMID: 23728689 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive)
  55. [55]

    Rymuza J, Kuś A, Nedeljković Beleslin B et al.. “Tocilizumab in Active, Moderate-to-Severe, Glucocorticoid-Resistant Thyroid Eye Disease: An Open-Label Prospective Study in Two Independent Cohorts.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2026). PMID: 42117357 ↗

    L2COHORTCited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive)
  56. [56]

    Lishinsky-Fischer N, Pollack R, Gur Z. “Teprotumumab-Associated Hyperglycemia: A Large-Scale Multinational Cohort Study.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2026). PMID: 41954033 ↗

    L2COHORTCited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, Epidemiology, Etiology and Risk Factors, Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention
  57. [57]

    Park JY, Yoo SW, Kim SS et al.. “Hyperfunctioning distant metastases in high-grade differentiated thyroid carcinoma arising from HRAS-mutated follicular thyroid carcinoma: a case report and literature review.” Frontiers in endocrinology (2026). PMID: 41993975 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature
  58. [58]

    Hamadi D, Saad-Omer S, Toro-Tobon D et al.. “Beyond the Eyes: Is Teprotumumab Effective for Thyroid Dermopathy?” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2026). PMID: 41791882 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature
  59. [59]

    Xiang P, Mezei M, Latif R et al.. “Stimulating Thyrotropin Receptor Antibodies Enhance the Expression of Both Thyrotropin Receptors and Insulin-Like Growth Factor 1 Receptors in Fibroblasts.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2026). PMID: 42374926 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature
  60. [60]

    Shen S, Zhang J, Qi X. “The role of short-chain fatty acids as key mediators of gut microbiota - host crosstalk in thyroid diseases.” Autoimmunity reviews (2026). PMID: 42320851 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Axis Physiology, Pathophysiology and Biochemical Signature, History and Evolution of Treatment
  61. [61]

    Ross DS, Burch HB, Cooper DS et al.. “2016 American Thyroid Association Guidelines for Diagnosis and Management of Hyperthyroidism and Other Causes of Thyrotoxicosis.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2016). PMID: 27521067 ↗

    L1GUIDELINECited in: Epidemiology, Etiology and Risk Factors, Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, Severity, Staging and Risk Stratification, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive), History and Evolution of Treatment
  62. [62]

    Liu J, Sun W, Dong W et al.. “Risk factors for post-thyroidectomy haemorrhage: a meta-analysis.” European journal of endocrinology (2017). PMID: 28179452 ↗

    L2SR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology and Risk Factors, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive)
  63. [63]

    Struja T, Fehlberg H, Kutz A et al.. “Can we predict relapse in Graves' disease? Results from a systematic review and meta-analysis.” European journal of endocrinology (2016). PMID: 27780830 ↗

    L2SR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology and Risk Factors, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive)
  64. [64]

    Gorshtein A, Turjeman A, Duskin-Bitan H et al.. “Graves' Disease Following COVID-19 Vaccination: A Population-based, Matched Case-control Study.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2024). PMID: 37815523 ↗

    L3CASE_CONTROLCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology and Risk Factors, Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization
  65. [65]

    Conrad N, Misra S, Verbakel JY et al.. “Incidence, prevalence, and co-occurrence of autoimmune disorders over time and by age, sex, and socioeconomic status: a population-based cohort study of 22 million individuals in the UK.” Lancet (London, England) (2023). PMID: 37156255 ↗

    L2COHORTCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology and Risk Factors, Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, Multiglandular Syndromes, Genetic Context and Co-Axis Effects
  66. [66]

    Stagnaro-Green A. “Approach to the patient with postpartum thyroiditis.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2012). PMID: 22312089 ↗

    L5CASE_REPORTCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology and Risk Factors, Clinical Presentation, Special Populations, Pregnancy and Fertility
  67. [67]

    Bartalena L, Smith TJ. “Treatment of Hyperthyroidism in Graves' Disease Complicated by Thyroid Eye Disease.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2025). PMID: 39787151 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Epidemiology, Etiology and Risk Factors, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive)
  68. [68]

    Kopp PA, Giordani I, Feldt-Rasmussen U et al.. “Approach to the patient with thyroid storm.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2026). PMID: 41655224 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Epidemiology, Etiology and Risk Factors, Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, Acute Management and Endocrine Emergencies, Complications and Long-term Sequelae
  69. [69]

    Nakhleh A, Robenshtok E, Adler L et al.. “Clinical Characteristics and Outcomes of Graves' Disease in Individuals with Prior Hypothyroidism.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2026). PMID: 40709412 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology and Risk Factors, Clinical Presentation, Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization
  70. [70]

    Meling Stokland AE, Ueland G, Lima K et al.. “Autoimmune Thyroid Disorders in Autoimmune Addison Disease.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2022). PMID: 35226748 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology and Risk Factors, Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, Multiglandular Syndromes, Genetic Context and Co-Axis Effects, Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention
  71. [71]

    Peng R, Xie P, Jin Z et al.. “Significance of Thyroid-Stimulating Immunoglobulin and Thyrotropin Receptor Antibody in Graves Disease.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2025). PMID: 39715350 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology and Risk Factors, Clinical Presentation, Severity, Staging and Risk Stratification, History and Evolution of Treatment, Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention
  72. [72]

    Li Y, Teng D, Ba J et al.. “Efficacy and Safety of Long-Term Universal Salt Iodization on Thyroid Disorders: Epidemiological Evidence from 31 Provinces of Mainland China.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2020). PMID: 32075540 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology and Risk Factors
  73. [73]

    Chou YT, Lai CC, Li CY et al.. “Early Statin Use Following Diagnosis of Graves' Disease Is Associated with a Reduced Risk of Moderate-to-Severe Graves' Orbitopathy in Middle-Aged Adults: Evidence from a Nationwide Taiwanese Cohort.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2025). PMID: 40803364 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology and Risk Factors, Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive)
  74. [74]

    Khamisi S, Udumyan R, Sjölin G et al.. “Fracture Incidence in Graves' Disease: A Population-Based Study.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2023). PMID: 37725590 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology and Risk Factors
  75. [75]

    Laurberg P, Andersen SL. “ENDOCRINOLOGY IN PREGNANCY: Pregnancy and the incidence, diagnosing and therapy of Graves' disease.” European journal of endocrinology (2016). PMID: 27280373 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Epidemiology, Etiology and Risk Factors, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive), Special Populations, Pregnancy and Fertility
  76. [76]

    Abraham-Nordling M, Byström K, Törring O et al.. “Incidence of hyperthyroidism in Sweden.” European journal of endocrinology (2011). PMID: 21908653 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology and Risk Factors, Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization
  77. [77]

    Zimmermann MB, Boelaert K. “Iodine deficiency and thyroid disorders.” The lancet. Diabetes & endocrinology (2015). PMID: 25591468 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Epidemiology, Etiology and Risk Factors
  78. [78]

    Bahn RS. “Graves' ophthalmopathy.” The New England journal of medicine (2010). PMID: 20181974 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Epidemiology, Etiology and Risk Factors, Clinical Presentation, History and Evolution of Treatment
  79. [79]

    De Leo S, Lee SY, Braverman LE. “Hyperthyroidism.” Lancet (London, England) (2016). PMID: 27038492 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Epidemiology, Etiology and Risk Factors, Acute Management and Endocrine Emergencies, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive), Multiglandular Syndromes, Genetic Context and Co-Axis Effects, Special Populations, Pregnancy and Fertility
  80. [80]

    Franklyn JA, Boelaert K. “Thyrotoxicosis.” Lancet (London, England) (2012). PMID: 22394559 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Epidemiology, Etiology and Risk Factors, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive), Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention
  81. [81]

    Hemminki K, Li X, Sundquist J et al.. “Familial association between type 1 diabetes and other autoimmune and related diseases.” Diabetologia (2009). PMID: 19543881 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology and Risk Factors
  82. [82]

    Ma Y, Wang Y, Mao YM et al.. “The relationship between digit ratio (2D:4D) and autoimmune diseases: A systematic review and meta-analysis.” Early human development (2026). PMID: 42034071 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology and Risk Factors
  83. [83]

    Ma C, Kuang A, Xie J et al.. “Radioiodine treatment for pediatric Graves' disease.” The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2008). PMID: 18646146 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology and Risk Factors, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive), Complications and Long-term Sequelae, Special Populations, Pregnancy and Fertility
  84. [84]

    Horsdal HT, Heitmann B, Boelt SG et al.. “Neonatal vitamin D levels and autoimmune disorders: a Danish population-based cohort study.” European journal of epidemiology (2026). PMID: 42418142 ↗

    L3COHORTCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology and Risk Factors
  85. [85]

    Lipinski A, Paulmann M, Müller S et al.. “"Drug Reaction with Eosinophilia and Systemic Symptoms" (DRESS): Long-term Outcomes Based on Severity - A Cohort Study.” Acta dermato-venereologica (2026). PMID: 42328995 ↗

    L3COHORTCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology and Risk Factors, Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, Severity, Staging and Risk Stratification, Acute Management and Endocrine Emergencies, Complications and Long-term Sequelae
  86. [86]

    Singh M, Subramanian A, Wambua S et al.. “Autoimmune diseases and risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes: a population-based cohort study of five million pregnancies in the UK.” BMC medicine (2026). PMID: 42169116 ↗

    L3COHORTCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology and Risk Factors, Multiglandular Syndromes, Genetic Context and Co-Axis Effects, Special Populations, Pregnancy and Fertility
  87. [87]

    Shih YH, Lu CH, Lung CC. “Risk of thyroid disorders after diagnosis of endometriosis: A 20-year retrospective cohort study.” Maturitas (2026). PMID: 41520457 ↗

    L3COHORTCited in: Epidemiology, Etiology and Risk Factors, History and Evolution of Treatment, Complications and Long-term Sequelae
  88. [88]

    Scappaticcio L, Longo M, Maiorino MI et al.. “Abnormal Liver Blood Tests in Patients with Hyperthyroidism: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2021). PMID: 33327837 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Clinical Presentation
  89. [89]

    Edmunds MR, Mellington F, Ford RL et al.. “Clinical challenges of thyroid eye disease in HIV-positive patients on highly active antiretroviral therapy.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2015). PMID: 25584718 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Clinical Presentation, Severity, Staging and Risk Stratification
  90. [90]

    Hoang TD, Mai VQ, Clyde PW et al.. “Simultaneous occurrence of subacute thyroiditis and Graves' disease.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2011). PMID: 22136271 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Clinical Presentation
  91. [91]

    Eliades M, El-Maouche D, Choudhary C et al.. “Takotsubo cardiomyopathy associated with thyrotoxicosis: a case report and review of the literature.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2013). PMID: 23560557 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Clinical Presentation, Acute Management and Endocrine Emergencies, Multiglandular Syndromes, Genetic Context and Co-Axis Effects
  92. [92]

    Yamauchi I, Sakane Y, Fukuda Y et al.. “Clinical Features of Nivolumab-Induced Thyroiditis: A Case Series Study.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2017). PMID: 28537531 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Clinical Presentation
  93. [93]

    Regelmann MO, Miloh T, Arnon R et al.. “Graves' disease presenting with severe cholestasis.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2012). PMID: 22458973 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Clinical Presentation, Acute Management and Endocrine Emergencies
  94. [94]

    di Filippo L, Castellino L, Allora A et al.. “Distinct Clinical Features of Post-COVID-19 Vaccination Early-onset Graves' Disease.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2022). PMID: 36130234 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Clinical Presentation, Multiglandular Syndromes, Genetic Context and Co-Axis Effects
  95. [95]

    Yin Q, Zhu T, Song D et al.. “Soluble Immune Checkpoints Associated With Disease Activity and Treatment Response in GD and TED.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2025). PMID: 39475457 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Clinical Presentation
  96. [96]

    De Luca F, Corrias A, Salerno M et al.. “Peculiarities of Graves' disease in children and adolescents with Down's syndrome.” European journal of endocrinology (2009). PMID: 19955260 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Clinical Presentation, History and Evolution of Treatment, Multiglandular Syndromes, Genetic Context and Co-Axis Effects
  97. [97]

    Carlé A, Knudsen N, Pedersen IB et al.. “Determinants of serum T4 and T3 at the time of diagnosis in nosological types of thyrotoxicosis: a population-based study.” European journal of endocrinology (2013). PMID: 23935127 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Clinical Presentation
  98. [98]

    Messova AM, Ganiyeva I, Abdrakhmanova ST et al.. “Autoimmune Thyroid Diseases After COVID-19 Infection: A Systematic Review of Clinical Manifestation and Outcomes.” International journal of environmental research and public health (2026). PMID: 42354220 ↗

    L4SR_OBSCited in: Clinical Presentation, Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive), Complications and Long-term Sequelae
  99. [99]

    Lai AC, Yu CW, Golrokhian-Sani AA et al.. “Management and presentation of pediatric thyroid eye disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis.” European journal of ophthalmology (2026). PMID: 41989129 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Clinical Presentation, Special Populations, Pregnancy and Fertility
  100. [100]

    Tran E, Hadi A, Nair G et al.. “Incidence of Alemtuzumab-Induced Thyroid-Associated Orbitopathy: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” Ophthalmic plastic and reconstructive surgery (2025). PMID: 41082928 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Clinical Presentation
  101. [101]

    Patera B, Zaffaroni A, Louka S et al.. “Graves' orbitopathy following Alemtuzumab treatment for multiple sclerosis: a systematic review and real-world insights.” Thyroid research (2025). PMID: 41345962 ↗

    L2SR_OBSCited in: Clinical Presentation
  102. [102]

    Pan D, Ding S, Fang S et al.. “Case Report: Hyperthyroidism in a patient with spotty skin pigmentation and atrial myxoma (Carney complex): coincidence, association or cause?” Frontiers in cardiovascular medicine (2026). PMID: 41982221 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Clinical Presentation, Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization
  103. [103]

    Zhang X, Hamal K, Liu D. “Pretibial myxedema-like lesions in a 74-Year-old male with lepromatous leprosy and type 2 lepra reaction.” BMC infectious diseases (2026). PMID: 41882550 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Clinical Presentation, Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization
  104. [104]

    Zhuang Y, Lin W, Cai Q et al.. “Marine-Lenhart syndrome combined with papillary thyroid carcinoma: a case report.” Frontiers in endocrinology (2026). PMID: 41809533 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Clinical Presentation
  105. [105]

    Bahn Chair RS, Burch HB, Cooper DS et al.. “Hyperthyroidism and other causes of thyrotoxicosis: management guidelines of the American Thyroid Association and American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2011). PMID: 21510801 ↗

    L1GUIDELINECited in: Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, Severity, Staging and Risk Stratification, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive), History and Evolution of Treatment
  106. [106]

    Sun L, Goh HJ, Verma S et al.. “Metabolic effects of brown fat in transitioning from hyperthyroidism to euthyroidism.” European journal of endocrinology (2021). PMID: 34342595 ↗

    L2TRIAL_NONRANDOMCited in: Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization
  107. [107]

    Salvi M, Vannucchi G, Campi I et al.. “Treatment of Graves' disease and associated ophthalmopathy with the anti-CD20 monoclonal antibody rituximab: an open study.” European journal of endocrinology (2007). PMID: 17218723 ↗

    L2TRIAL_NONRANDOMCited in: Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, Severity, Staging and Risk Stratification
  108. [108]

    Abraham-Nordling M, Lönn S, Wallin G et al.. “Hyperthyroidism and suicide: a retrospective cohort study in Sweden.” European journal of endocrinology (2009). PMID: 19131505 ↗

    L3COHORTCited in: Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, History and Evolution of Treatment, Complications and Long-term Sequelae
  109. [109]

    Lee SY, Pearce EN. “Testing, Monitoring, and Treatment of Thyroid Dysfunction in Pregnancy.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2021). PMID: 33349844 ↗

    L5CASE_REPORTCited in: Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive), Special Populations, Pregnancy and Fertility
  110. [110]

    Laurberg P, Bournaud C, Karmisholt J et al.. “Management of Graves' hyperthyroidism in pregnancy: focus on both maternal and foetal thyroid function, and caution against surgical thyroidectomy in pregnancy.” European journal of endocrinology (2008). PMID: 18849306 ↗

    L5CASE_REPORTCited in: Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention, Special Populations, Pregnancy and Fertility
  111. [111]

    Ueland GÅ, Ueland HO, Stokland AM et al.. “Prevalence, Risk Factors, and Clinical and Biochemical Characteristics of Alemtuzumab-Induced Graves Disease.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2024). PMID: 37708353 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, Complications and Long-term Sequelae, Special Populations, Pregnancy and Fertility
  112. [112]

    Daniels GH, Ross DS. “Radioactive Iodine: A Living History.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2023). PMID: 37307104 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive)
  113. [113]

    Haider U, Richards P, Gianoukakis AG. “Thymic Hyperplasia Associated with Graves' Disease: Pathophysiology and Proposed Management Algorithm.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2017). PMID: 28578595 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization
  114. [114]

    Stan MN, Bahn RS. “Risk factors for development or deterioration of Graves' ophthalmopathy.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2010). PMID: 20578901 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization
  115. [115]

    van Megen KM, Spindler MP, Keij FM et al.. “Relapsing/remitting type 1 diabetes.” Diabetologia (2017). PMID: 28835984 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive)
  116. [116]

    Cooper DS, Laurberg P. “Hyperthyroidism in pregnancy.” The lancet. Diabetes & endocrinology (2013). PMID: 24622372 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive), Special Populations, Pregnancy and Fertility
  117. [117]

    Chung HW, Cho SG, Oh D et al.. “CT-Free Quantitative Thyroid SPECT Based on Artificial Intelligence: A Prospective Multicenter Noninferiority Clinical Trial.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2026). PMID: 41944102 ↗

    L2TRIAL_NONRANDOMCited in: Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, History and Evolution of Treatment
  118. [118]

    Ma C, Xie J, Wang H et al.. “Radioiodine therapy versus antithyroid medications for Graves' disease.” The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2016). PMID: 26891370 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive), Complications and Long-term Sequelae, Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention
  119. [119]

    Hussain A, Noor A, Saadullah M et al.. “Pre- and Post-Radioactive Iodine Therapy Hormonal Changes and Clinical Outcomes in Hyperthyroid Patients: A Retrospective Cohort Study.” Pakistan journal of medical sciences (2026). PMID: 42369934 ↗

    L3COHORTCited in: Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive)
  120. [120]

    Oron T, Yackobovitch-Gavan M, Lazar L et al.. “Trends in Management and Outcomes of Pediatric Hyperthyroidism Over Two Decades.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2026). PMID: 42347684 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive)
  121. [121]

    Burman KD, Schmeltz LR, Momoyama Y et al.. “Analytical and clinical performance of the updated Elecsys Anti-TPO II assay for the detection of antibodies against thyroid peroxidase to aid in the diagnosis of autoimmune thyroid diseases.” Clinical chemistry and laboratory medicine (2026). PMID: 42259764 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup: Paired Hormones, Dynamic Testing and Localization
  122. [122]

    Liu X, Qiang W, Liu X et al.. “A second course of antithyroid drug therapy for recurrent Graves' disease: an experience in endocrine practice.” European journal of endocrinology (2014). PMID: 25468954 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: Severity, Staging and Risk Stratification, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive), History and Evolution of Treatment, Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention
  123. [123]

    Alves Junior JM, Bernardo W, Villagelin D. “Effectiveness of Different Treatment Modalities in Initial and Chronic Phases of Thyroid Eye Disease: A Systematic Review With Meta-analysis.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2024). PMID: 39076015 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Severity, Staging and Risk Stratification, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive)
  124. [124]

    Smith AH, Priscu A, Morkos M. “Initial Disease Severity and Methimazole Titration for Graves' Disease: A Retrospective Longitudinal Cohort Study.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2026). PMID: 41886602 ↗

    L3COHORTCited in: Severity, Staging and Risk Stratification
  125. [125]

    Thomas D, Moisidis A, Tsiakalos A et al.. “Antithyroid drug-induced aplastic anemia.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2008). PMID: 18816182 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Severity, Staging and Risk Stratification, Complications and Long-term Sequelae
  126. [126]

    Fallahi P, Ferrari SM, Ragusa F et al.. “Th1 Chemokines in Autoimmune Endocrine Disorders.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2020). PMID: 31863667 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Severity, Staging and Risk Stratification
  127. [127]

    Degen H, Gavvovidis I, Blankenstein T et al.. “Thyrotropin Receptor-Specific Lymphocytes in Adenovirus-TSHR-Immunized Native and Human Leukocyte Antigen-DR3-Transgenic Mice and in Graves' Disease Patient Blood.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2021). PMID: 33208049 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Severity, Staging and Risk Stratification
  128. [128]

    Vassallo E, Péporté A, McQueen A et al.. “ESR Essentials: thyroid imaging-practice recommendations by the European Society of Head and Neck Radiology.” European radiology (2025). PMID: 41258456 ↗

    L1GUIDELINECited in: Severity, Staging and Risk Stratification
  129. [129]

    Léger J, Carel JC. “MANAGEMENT OF ENDOCRINE DISEASE: Arguments for the prolonged use of antithyroid drugs in children with Graves' disease.” European journal of endocrinology (2017). PMID: 28381452 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Severity, Staging and Risk Stratification, Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention, Special Populations, Pregnancy and Fertility
  130. [130]

    Matsumoto C, Ito M, Yamada H et al.. “Genes that characterize T3-predominant Graves' thyroid tissues.” European journal of endocrinology (2013). PMID: 23109646 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Severity, Staging and Risk Stratification
  131. [131]

    Mohlin E, Filipsson Nyström H, Eliasson M. “Long-term prognosis after medical treatment of Graves' disease in a northern Swedish population 2000-2010.” European journal of endocrinology (2014). PMID: 24366943 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: Severity, Staging and Risk Stratification
  132. [132]

    He GS, Ling Chia JL, Hao TT et al.. “Outcomes of Surgery Versus Radioactive Iodine as Definitive Therapy in Pediatric Graves' Disease: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Cohort Studies.” World journal of surgery (2026). PMID: 41665506 ↗

    L2SR_OBSCited in: Severity, Staging and Risk Stratification, Complications and Long-term Sequelae, Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention, Special Populations, Pregnancy and Fertility
  133. [133]

    Shibi Anilkumar A, Ajay N, Veerabathiran R. “Genetic Risk Factors in Autoimmune Thyroid Diseases: An Umbrella Review of Meta-Analyses and Evidence Credibility.” Immunological investigations (2026). PMID: 42003381 ↗

    L5SR_OBSCited in: Severity, Staging and Risk Stratification
  134. [134]

    Fung MHM, Luk Y, Yuen KKW et al.. “The Two-Year Results of Using Radiofrequency Ablation as a Novel Treatment for Persistent or Relapsed Graves' Disease: A Prospective Study.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2024). PMID: 38836419 ↗

    L4TRIAL_NONRANDOMCited in: Acute Management and Endocrine Emergencies, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive), History and Evolution of Treatment, Complications and Long-term Sequelae, Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention, Special Populations, Pregnancy and Fertility
  135. [135]

    Xiong X, Wong CKH, Au ICH et al.. “Safety of Inactivated and mRNA COVID-19 Vaccination Among Patients Treated for Hypothyroidism: A Population-Based Cohort Study.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2022). PMID: 35216517 ↗

    L4COHORTCited in: Acute Management and Endocrine Emergencies
  136. [136]

    Chee YJ, Liew H, Hoi WH et al.. “SARS-CoV-2 mRNA Vaccination and Graves' Disease: A Report of 12 Cases and Review of the Literature.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2022). PMID: 35235663 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Acute Management and Endocrine Emergencies, Multiglandular Syndromes, Genetic Context and Co-Axis Effects
  137. [137]

    Chong HW, See KC, Phua J. “Thyroid storm with multiorgan failure.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2010). PMID: 20146655 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Acute Management and Endocrine Emergencies
  138. [138]

    Yang M, Qu H, Deng HC. “Acute pancreatitis induced by methimazole in a patient with Graves' disease.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2011). PMID: 22136208 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Acute Management and Endocrine Emergencies
  139. [139]

    Kim HJ, Jung TS, Hahm JR et al.. “Thyrotoxicosis-induced acute myocardial infarction due to painless thyroiditis.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2011). PMID: 21875344 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Acute Management and Endocrine Emergencies
  140. [140]

    Ueland HO, Ulvik A, Løvås K et al.. “Systemic Activation of the Kynurenine Pathway in Graves Disease With and Without Ophthalmopathy.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2023). PMID: 36611247 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Acute Management and Endocrine Emergencies
  141. [141]

    Rivkees SA, Dinauer C. “An optimal treatment for pediatric Graves' disease is radioiodine.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2007). PMID: 17341574 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Acute Management and Endocrine Emergencies, Special Populations, Pregnancy and Fertility
  142. [142]

    Oğuz SH, Şendur SN, İremli BG et al.. “SARS-CoV-2 Vaccine-induced Thyroiditis: Safety of Revaccinations and Clinical Follow-up.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2022). PMID: 35100622 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: Acute Management and Endocrine Emergencies
  143. [143]

    Gao X, Chang W, Sun K et al.. “Lithium carbonate bridging and outcomes of radioiodine therapy in severe Graves' disease: a retrospective cohort study.” Frontiers in endocrinology (2026). PMID: 42181214 ↗

    L4COHORTCited in: Acute Management and Endocrine Emergencies, Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive)
  144. [144]

    Hommos L, Gohil H, Rob M et al.. “Long-Term Thyroid Complications Post-COVID-19: A Systematic Review.” Microorganisms (2026). PMID: 41900303 ↗

    L2SR_OBSCited in: Acute Management and Endocrine Emergencies, History and Evolution of Treatment, Multiglandular Syndromes, Genetic Context and Co-Axis Effects, Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention
  145. [145]

    Newman C, Saqlain M, Mohammed IA et al.. “Iopanoic acid rapidly restores euthyroidism in refractory thyrotoxicosis pre-thyroidectomy: a retrospective study.” European thyroid journal (2026). PMID: 41738978 ↗

    L4COHORTCited in: Acute Management and Endocrine Emergencies, Special Populations, Pregnancy and Fertility
  146. [146]

    Jiang Y, Pang R, Dai S et al.. “Relapsing Guillain-Barré syndrome associated with Graves' disease and papillary thyroid carcinoma: a case report and literature review.” Frontiers in immunology (2026). PMID: 42233015 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Acute Management and Endocrine Emergencies
  147. [147]

    Gigliotti BJ, Chauhan D, Ma J et al.. “Epidemiology and Risk Factors of Hyperglycemic Events and Complications Among Patients With Graves' Disease or Thyroid Eye Disease in the United States.” Endocrine practice : official journal of the American College of Endocrinology and the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists (2026). PMID: 41713693 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: Acute Management and Endocrine Emergencies
  148. [148]

    Adegboye C, Dasuri VS, Makogonov N et al.. “Immunoglobulin therapy for the fetus and neonate.” Archives of disease in childhood. Fetal and neonatal edition (2026). PMID: 41672754 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Acute Management and Endocrine Emergencies
  149. [149]

    Xie P, Shen L, Peng R et al.. “Effects of Low-dose Methotrexate With Methimazole in Patients With Graves' Disease: Results of a Randomized Clinical Trial.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2025). PMID: 38994582 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive), History and Evolution of Treatment
  150. [150]

    Struja T, Guebelin L, Kutz A et al.. “Does Immunosuppressive Therapy Improve Outcomes in Graves' Disease? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2016). PMID: 26953215 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive)
  151. [151]

    Groeneweg S, Peeters RP, Moran C et al.. “Effectiveness and safety of the tri-iodothyronine analogue Triac in children and adults with MCT8 deficiency: an international, single-arm, open-label, phase 2 trial.” The lancet. Diabetes & endocrinology (2019). PMID: 31377265 ↗

    L4TRIAL_NONRANDOMCited in: Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive), Multiglandular Syndromes, Genetic Context and Co-Axis Effects, Complications and Long-term Sequelae
  152. [152]

    Gillard P, Huurman V, Van der Auwera B et al.. “Graves hyperthyroidism after stopping immunosuppressive therapy in type 1 diabetic Islet cell recipients with pretransplant TPO autoantibodies.” Diabetes care (2009). PMID: 19549735 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive), History and Evolution of Treatment
  153. [153]

    Fenneman AC, Bruinstroop E, Nieuwdorp M et al.. “A Comprehensive Review of Thyroid Hormone Metabolism in the Gut and Its Clinical Implications.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2023). PMID: 36322786 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive)
  154. [154]

    Bonnema SJ, Hegedüs L. “Radioiodine therapy in benign thyroid diseases: effects, side effects, and factors affecting therapeutic outcome.” Endocrine reviews (2012). PMID: 22961916 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive)
  155. [155]

    Cirocchi R, Arezzo A, D'Andrea V et al.. “Intraoperative neuromonitoring versus visual nerve identification for prevention of recurrent laryngeal nerve injury in adults undergoing thyroid surgery.” The Cochrane database of systematic reviews (2019). PMID: 30659577 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive), Complications and Long-term Sequelae, Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention
  156. [156]

    Sasaki T, Kihara M, Fujishima M et al.. “Markedly Elevated Preoperative Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone Levels and Greater Operative Difficulty in Graves' Disease: A Single-Center Cohort Study.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2026). PMID: 42126184 ↗

    L2COHORTCited in: Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive), Complications and Long-term Sequelae, Special Populations, Pregnancy and Fertility
  157. [157]

    Yin P, Wu J, Zhao H et al.. “Early Transient Hypothyroidism Is Associated With Long-Term Outcomes of 131I Treatment in Graves' Disease: A Retrospective Cohort Study.” Clinical endocrinology (2026). PMID: 42098592 ↗

    L2COHORTCited in: Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive)
  158. [158]

    Negeri B, Merdassa E, Fite MB et al.. “Time to euthyroidism and its predictors among thyrotoxicosis patients on antithyroid drugs at tertiary hospitals, Western Oromia, Ethiopia: a retrospective cohort study.” Thyroid research (2026). PMID: 42243972 ↗

    L2COHORTCited in: Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive)
  159. [159]

    Airaudo O, Luscan R, Aidan P et al.. “Pediatric robotic thyroid surgery and scar-related quality of life: A retrospective cohort of 40 patients.” Journal of pediatric surgery (2026). PMID: 42349544 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive)
  160. [160]

    Chen Q, Deng Z, Deng Q et al.. “Construction and clinical application of a predictive model for the efficacy of ¹³¹I therapy in refractory Graves' disease in children and adolescents.” EJNMMI research (2026). PMID: 42337195 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Long-term Management: Treat-to-Target (Replacement, Suppression, Definitive)
  161. [161]

    Marcocci C, Bartalena L, Bogazzi F et al.. “Relationship between Graves' ophthalmopathy and type of treatment of Graves' hyperthyroidism.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (1992). PMID: 1525588 ↗

    L5RCTCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  162. [162]

    Kahaly GJ, Riedl M, König J et al.. “Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Randomized Trial of Selenium in Graves Hyperthyroidism.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2017). PMID: 29092078 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  163. [163]

    Allannic H, Fauchet R, Orgiazzi J et al.. “Antithyroid drugs and Graves' disease: a prospective randomized evaluation of the efficacy of treatment duration.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (1990). PMID: 1689737 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  164. [164]

    Törring O, Tallstedt L, Wallin G et al.. “Graves' hyperthyroidism: treatment with antithyroid drugs, surgery, or radioiodine--a prospective, randomized study. Thyroid Study Group.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (1996). PMID: 8768863 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  165. [165]

    Raber W, Kmen E, Waldhäusl W et al.. “Medical therapy of Graves' disease: effect on remission rates of methimazole alone and in combination with triiodothyronine.” European journal of endocrinology (2000). PMID: 10664518 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  166. [166]

    Nedrebo BG, Holm PI, Uhlving S et al.. “Predictors of outcome and comparison of different drug regimens for the prevention of relapse in patients with Graves' disease.” European journal of endocrinology (2002). PMID: 12444889 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  167. [167]

    Taïeb D, Bournaud C, Eberle MC et al.. “Quality of life, clinical outcomes and safety of early prophylactic levothyroxine administration in patients with Graves' hyperthyroidism undergoing radioiodine therapy: a randomized controlled study.” European journal of endocrinology (2016). PMID: 26772985 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment, Complications and Long-term Sequelae
  168. [168]

    Bartalena L, Marcocci C, Bogazzi F et al.. “Relation between therapy for hyperthyroidism and the course of Graves' ophthalmopathy.” The New England journal of medicine (1998). PMID: 9420337 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  169. [169]

    Hashizume K, Ichikawa K, Sakurai A et al.. “Administration of thyroxine in treated Graves' disease. Effects on the level of antibodies to thyroid-stimulating hormone receptors and on the risk of recurrence of hyperthyroidism.” The New England journal of medicine (1991). PMID: 1900575 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  170. [170]

    Tallstedt L, Lundell G, Tørring O et al.. “Occurrence of ophthalmopathy after treatment for Graves' hyperthyroidism. The Thyroid Study Group.” The New England journal of medicine (1992). PMID: 1489388 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  171. [171]

    Bartalena L, Marcocci C, Bogazzi F et al.. “Use of corticosteroids to prevent progression of Graves' ophthalmopathy after radioiodine therapy for hyperthyroidism.” The New England journal of medicine (1989). PMID: 2811943 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  172. [172]

    McIver B, Rae P, Beckett G et al.. “Lack of effect of thyroxine in patients with Graves' hyperthyroidism who are treated with an antithyroid drug.” The New England journal of medicine (1996). PMID: 8531998 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  173. [173]

    Mohamed A, Tzoulis P, Kossler AL et al.. “New Onset or Deterioration of Thyroid Eye Disease After mRNA SARS-CoV-2 Vaccines: Report of 2 Cases and Literature Review.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2023). PMID: 36251747 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment, Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention
  174. [174]

    Wilkin TJ, Gunn A, Isles TE et al.. “Short-term triiodothyronine in prevention of temporary hypothyroidism after subtotal thyroidectomy for Graves' disease.” Lancet (London, England) (1979). PMID: 87965 ↗

    L2RCTCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  175. [175]

    Markou K, Georgopoulos N, Kyriazopoulou V et al.. “Iodine-Induced hypothyroidism.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2001). PMID: 11396709 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  176. [176]

    Zimmerman D. “Fetal and neonatal hyperthyroidism.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (1999). PMID: 10447021 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  177. [177]

    Wiersinga WM, Bartalena L. “Epidemiology and prevention of Graves' ophthalmopathy.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2002). PMID: 12487767 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  178. [178]

    Smith TJ. “Controversies Surrounding IGF-I Receptor Involvement in Thyroid-Associated Ophthalmopathy.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2025). PMID: 39909461 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  179. [179]

    Wartofsky L. “Has the use of antithyroid drugs for Graves' disease become obsolete?” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (1993). PMID: 7509673 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  180. [180]

    Sklenar I, Wilkin TJ, Diaz JL et al.. “Spontaneous hypoglycemia associated with autoimmunity specific to human insulin.” Diabetes care (1987). PMID: 3556103 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  181. [181]

    Wilkin TJ. “Receptor autoimmunity in endocrine disorders.” The New England journal of medicine (1990). PMID: 2170843 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  182. [182]

    Bohbot NL, Young J, Orgiazzi J et al.. “Interferon-alpha-induced hyperthyroidism: a three-stage evolution from silent thyroiditis towards Graves' disease.” European journal of endocrinology (2006). PMID: 16498048 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  183. [183]

    Siddiqi A, Monson JP, Wood DF et al.. “Serum cytokines in thyrotoxicosis.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (1999). PMID: 10022397 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  184. [184]

    Kim HJ, Hong G, Hwang J et al.. “Familial Risk of Graves Disease Among First-Degree Relatives and Interaction With Smoking: A Population-Based Study.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2023). PMID: 36808421 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  185. [185]

    Saleh L, Schreurs MWJ, Boersma E et al.. “Maternal TSH-receptor antibodies predict fetal/neonatal hyperthyroidism in pregnancies with a history of Graves' disease.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2026). PMID: 41846542 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  186. [186]

    Uldall-Torp NM, Pedersen IB, Carlé A et al.. “Antithyroid drug treatment in pregnancy: A first report from the Danish PRETHYR multicenter study.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2026). PMID: 41790746 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment, Complications and Long-term Sequelae
  187. [187]

    Rees Smith B, McLachlan SM, Furmaniak J. “Autoantibodies to the thyrotropin receptor.” Endocrine reviews (1988). PMID: 3286231 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  188. [188]

    Carlé A, Pedersen IB, Knudsen N et al.. “Epidemiology of subtypes of hyperthyroidism in Denmark: a population-based study.” European journal of endocrinology (2011). PMID: 21357288 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  189. [189]

    Vos XG, Smit N, Endert E et al.. “Variation in phenotypic appearance of Graves' disease: effect of genetic anticipation and duration of complaints.” European journal of endocrinology (2009). PMID: 19423562 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  190. [190]

    Shahbazian HB, Sarvghadi F, Azizi F. “Prevalence and characteristics of postpartum thyroid dysfunction in Tehran.” European journal of endocrinology (2001). PMID: 11580995 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  191. [191]

    Yeung A, Siddiqui MS, Mirtorabi N et al.. “Immunomodulators in Graves' ophthalmopathy: a systematic review.” Frontiers in endocrinology (2026). PMID: 41743555 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  192. [192]

    Momotani N, Noh J, Oyanagi H et al.. “Antithyroid drug therapy for Graves' disease during pregnancy. Optimal regimen for fetal thyroid status.” The New England journal of medicine (1986). PMID: 2423874 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  193. [193]

    Shine B, Fells P, Edwards OM et al.. “Association between Graves' ophthalmopathy and smoking.” Lancet (London, England) (1990). PMID: 1971331 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  194. [194]

    Cramon PK, Winther KH, Boesen VB et al.. “Selenium supplementation in individuals with newly diagnosed Graves' hyperthyroidism: a double-blind, multi-centre RCT.” European thyroid journal (2026). PMID: 41384622 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment, Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention
  195. [195]

    Tabriz N, Fried D, Uslar V et al.. “Impact of Preoperative Calcium and Magnesium Supplementation on Quality of Life and Hypocalcemia Post-Thyroidectomy.” Endocrinology, diabetes & metabolism (2026). PMID: 41319240 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment, Complications and Long-term Sequelae
  196. [196]

    Teliti M, Gallo M, Costa P et al.. “Management of alemtuzumab-induced Graves' disease in pregnancy: a case report and literature review.” Frontiers in immunology (2025). PMID: 41607779 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  197. [197]

    Murugan AK, Alzahrani AS. “COVID-19 vaccine-induced autoimmune hyperthyroidism: Graves' disease.” Frontiers in immunology (2025). PMID: 41415293 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  198. [198]

    Li S, Xu Q, Wang S et al.. “Recent advances of trace elements in autoimmune thyroid disease.” Frontiers in immunology (2025). PMID: 41383597 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: History and Evolution of Treatment
  199. [199]

    Sinha A, Abinun M, Gennery AR et al.. “Graves' immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome in childhood.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2013). PMID: 23556479 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Multiglandular Syndromes, Genetic Context and Co-Axis Effects
  200. [200]

    Teale E, Gouldesbrough DR, Peacey SR. “Graves' disease and coexisting struma ovarii: struma expression of thyrotropin receptors and the presence of thyrotropin receptor stimulating antibodies.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2006). PMID: 16910883 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Multiglandular Syndromes, Genetic Context and Co-Axis Effects
  201. [201]

    Sriphrapradang C, Srichomkwun P, Refetoff S et al.. “A Novel Thyroid Hormone Receptor Beta Gene Mutation (G251V) in a Thai Patient with Resistance to Thyroid Hormone Coexisting with Pituitary Incidentaloma.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2016). PMID: 27758132 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Multiglandular Syndromes, Genetic Context and Co-Axis Effects
  202. [202]

    Nishihara E, Chen CR, Higashiyama T et al.. “Subclinical nonautoimmune hyperthyroidism in a family segregates with a thyrotropin receptor mutation with weakly increased constitutive activity.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2010). PMID: 20929407 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Multiglandular Syndromes, Genetic Context and Co-Axis Effects
  203. [203]

    Shaheen D, Kim CS. “Myositis associated with the decline of thyroid hormone levels in thyrotoxicosis: a syndrome?” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2009). PMID: 19916866 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Multiglandular Syndromes, Genetic Context and Co-Axis Effects
  204. [204]

    Pham-Dobor G, Kaltenecker P, Temesfoi V et al.. “Systematic Analysis and Network Mapping of Disease Associations in Autoimmune Polyglandular Syndrome.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2025). PMID: 39378147 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Multiglandular Syndromes, Genetic Context and Co-Axis Effects, Complications and Long-term Sequelae
  205. [205]

    Schunter JA, Löffler D, Wiesner T et al.. “A novel FoxD3 Variant Is Associated With Vitiligo and Elevated Thyroid Auto-Antibodies.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2015). PMID: 26267147 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Multiglandular Syndromes, Genetic Context and Co-Axis Effects
  206. [206]

    Smith TJ. “Potential Roles of CD34+ Fibrocytes Masquerading as Orbital Fibroblasts in Thyroid-Associated Ophthalmopathy.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2019). PMID: 30445529 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Multiglandular Syndromes, Genetic Context and Co-Axis Effects
  207. [207]

    Prinz N, Tittel SR, Bachran R et al.. “Characteristics of Patients with Type 1 Diabetes and Additional Autoimmune Disease in the DPV Registry.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2021). PMID: 34061946 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Multiglandular Syndromes, Genetic Context and Co-Axis Effects
  208. [208]

    Fichna M, Małecki PP, Młodzikowska M et al.. “Increased risk of endocrine autoimmunity in first-degree relatives of patients with autoimmune Addison's disease.” European journal of endocrinology (2020). PMID: 32487775 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Multiglandular Syndromes, Genetic Context and Co-Axis Effects
  209. [209]

    Lin L, Shan Y, Lei F et al.. “Cardiovascular Health, Genetic Susceptibility, and the Risk of Incident Autoimmune Disorders in the UK Biobank: A Prospective Cohort Study.” Journal of the American Heart Association (2025). PMID: 40371604 ↗

    L2COHORTCited in: Multiglandular Syndromes, Genetic Context and Co-Axis Effects
  210. [210]

    Ouled Toumi R, Kassaw C, Demareva V. “Gender disparities in cognitive impairment across neurological autoimmune disorders: a systematic review.” Frontiers in neurology (2025). PMID: 40337166 ↗

    L2SR_OBSCited in: Multiglandular Syndromes, Genetic Context and Co-Axis Effects
  211. [211]

    Piovani E, Gozzoli GI, Della Pina SEL et al.. “A case-control study on autoimmune polyendocrine syndromes in patients with systemic lupus erythematosus.” Rheumatology (Oxford, England) (2025). PMID: 40495344 ↗

    L3CASE_CONTROLCited in: Multiglandular Syndromes, Genetic Context and Co-Axis Effects
  212. [212]

    Lin TM, Chang YS, Shen YC et al.. “Severe cutaneous adverse reactions and risk of autoimmune disease, including psoriasis and inflammatory bowel disease: a cohort study.” Clinical and experimental dermatology (2025). PMID: 40721277 ↗

    L3COHORTCited in: Multiglandular Syndromes, Genetic Context and Co-Axis Effects
  213. [213]

    Sundaresh V, Brito JP, Wang Z et al.. “Comparative effectiveness of therapies for Graves' hyperthyroidism: a systematic review and network meta-analysis.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2013). PMID: 23824415 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Complications and Long-term Sequelae
  214. [214]

    Banga JP, Nielsen CH, Gilbert JA et al.. “Application of new therapies in Graves' disease and thyroid-associated ophthalmopathy: animal models and translation to human clinical trials.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2008). PMID: 18752425 ↗

    L5TRIAL_NONRANDOMCited in: Complications and Long-term Sequelae
  215. [215]

    Azizi F, Malboosbaf R. “Long-Term Antithyroid Drug Treatment: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2017). PMID: 28699478 ↗

    L1SR_OBSCited in: Complications and Long-term Sequelae, Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention
  216. [216]

    Shi WJ, Liu W, Zhou XY et al.. “Associations of Helicobacter pylori infection and cytotoxin-associated gene A status with autoimmune thyroid diseases: a meta-analysis.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2013). PMID: 23544831 ↗

    L3SR_OBSCited in: Complications and Long-term Sequelae
  217. [217]

    Chen YK, Lin CL, Chang YJ et al.. “Cancer risk in patients with Graves' disease: a nationwide cohort study.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2013). PMID: 23421548 ↗

    L3COHORTCited in: Complications and Long-term Sequelae
  218. [218]

    Xu Y, Li C, Wang W et al.. “Gestational and Postpartum Complications in Patients with First Trimester Thyrotoxicosis: A Prospective Multicenter Cohort Study from Northeast China.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2023). PMID: 37051708 ↗

    L2COHORTCited in: Complications and Long-term Sequelae
  219. [219]

    Cooper DS. “Approach to the patient with subclinical hyperthyroidism.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2007). PMID: 17209221 ↗

    L5CASE_REPORTCited in: Complications and Long-term Sequelae
  220. [220]

    Kim BW. “Does Radioactive Iodine Therapy for Hyperthyroidism Cause Cancer?” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2022). PMID: 34555150 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Complications and Long-term Sequelae
  221. [221]

    Donovan PJ, McLeod DS, Little R et al.. “Cost-utility analysis comparing radioactive iodine, anti-thyroid drugs and total thyroidectomy for primary treatment of Graves' disease.” European journal of endocrinology (2016). PMID: 27634939 ↗

    L5OTHERCited in: Complications and Long-term Sequelae
  222. [222]

    Schwensen CF, Brandt F, Hegedüs L et al.. “Mortality in Graves' orbitopathy is increased and influenced by gender, age and pre-existing morbidity: a nationwide Danish register study.” European journal of endocrinology (2017). PMID: 28258132 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Complications and Long-term Sequelae
  223. [223]

    O'Sullivan AJ, Lewis M, Diamond T. “Amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis: left ventricular dysfunction is associated with increased mortality.” European journal of endocrinology (2006). PMID: 16556715 ↗

    L3OTHERCited in: Complications and Long-term Sequelae
  224. [224]

    Mirallié E, Borel F, Tresallet C et al.. “Impact of total thyroidectomy on quality of life at 6 months: the prospective ThyrQoL multicentre trial.” European journal of endocrinology (2020). PMID: 31804967 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Complications and Long-term Sequelae
  225. [225]

    Pazaitou-Panayiotou K, Perros P, Boudina M et al.. “Mortality from thyroid cancer in patients with hyperthyroidism: the Theagenion Cancer Hospital experience.” European journal of endocrinology (2008). PMID: 18819945 ↗

    L4OTHERCited in: Complications and Long-term Sequelae
  226. [226]

    Haroon AM, Ghani A, Ayesh AR et al.. “The effect of iodine solution in total thyroidectomy for patients with Graves disease: A meta-analysis.” Surgery (2025). PMID: 41351925 ↗

    L2SR_OBSCited in: Complications and Long-term Sequelae, Special Populations, Pregnancy and Fertility
  227. [227]

    Krassas GE, Poppe K, Glinoer D. “Thyroid function and human reproductive health.” Endocrine reviews (2010). PMID: 20573783 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Complications and Long-term Sequelae, Special Populations, Pregnancy and Fertility
  228. [228]

    Mao XM, Li HQ, Li Q et al.. “Prevention of relapse of Graves' disease by treatment with an intrathyroid injection of dexamethasone.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2009). PMID: 19850691 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention
  229. [229]

    Cheetham TD, Cole M, Abinun M et al.. “Adjuvant Rituximab-Exploratory Trial in Young People With Graves Disease.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2022). PMID: 34687316 ↗

    L4TRIAL_NONRANDOMCited in: Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention
  230. [230]

    Rochau U, Qerimi Rushaj V, Schaffner M et al.. “Decision-Analytic Modeling Studies in Prevention and Treatment of Iodine Deficiency and Thyroid Disorders: A Systematic Overview.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2020). PMID: 31964247 ↗

    L5SR_OBSCited in: Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention
  231. [231]

    Razvi S, Vaidya B, Perros P et al.. “What is the evidence behind the evidence-base? The premature death of block-replace antithyroid drug regimens for Graves' disease.” European journal of endocrinology (2006). PMID: 16728536 ↗

    L5SR_OBSCited in: Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention
  232. [232]

    Kahaly GJ, Wolf J, Luffy M et al.. “Euthyroidism and Long-Term Remission of Graves' Hyperthyroidism Following Treatment With an FcRn Blocker: A Case Report.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2026). PMID: 41684304 ↗

    L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention
  233. [233]

    Tomer Y. “Genetic susceptibility to autoimmune thyroid disease: past, present, and future.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2010). PMID: 20604685 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention
  234. [234]

    Ponto KA, Zang S, Kahaly GJ. “The tale of radioiodine and Graves' orbitopathy.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2010). PMID: 20578895 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention
  235. [235]

    Moreno Watashi D, Sehgal A, Tejada Frisancho F et al.. “Efficacy and Safety of Adjunctive Bile Acid Sequestrant Therapy for Thyrotoxicosis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2025). PMID: 41467975 ↗

    L1SR_MA_RCTCited in: Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention
  236. [236]

    Suzuki K, Kobayashi T, Izuchi T et al.. “Increased risk of hyperthyroidism induced by immune checkpoint inhibitors in patients with existing or prior Graves' disease: a nested prospective cohort study with propensity score matching.” Frontiers in endocrinology (2025). PMID: 41404503 ↗

    L3COHORTCited in: Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention
  237. [237]

    Yen HC, Lin CH, Lin MC. “Maternal Autoimmune Disease and Childhood-Onset Type 1 Diabetes: A Nationwide Population-Based Nested Case-Control Study.” Pediatric diabetes (2026). PMID: 41573056 ↗

    L3CASE_CONTROLCited in: Prognosis, Natural History and Prevention
  238. [238]

    Grove-Laugesen D, Ebbehoj E, Watt T et al.. “Effect of Vitamin D Supplementation on Graves' Disease: The DAGMAR Trial.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2023). PMID: 37218433 ↗

    L1RCTCited in: Special Populations, Pregnancy and Fertility
  239. [239]

    van Dijk MM, Smits IH, Fliers E et al.. “Maternal Thyrotropin Receptor Antibody Concentration and the Risk of Fetal and Neonatal Thyrotoxicosis: A Systematic Review.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2018). PMID: 29325496 ↗

    L2SR_OBSCited in: Special Populations, Pregnancy and Fertility
  240. [240]

    Cohen-Sela E, Brener A, Raviv O et al.. “Outcomes in Maternal Graves' Disease: A Population-Based Mother-Infant Dyad Cohort Study.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2023). PMID: 38009210 ↗

    L3COHORTCited in: Special Populations, Pregnancy and Fertility
  241. [241]

    Bauer AJ. “Approach to the pediatric patient with Graves' disease: when is definitive therapy warranted?” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2011). PMID: 21378220 ↗

    L5CASE_REPORTCited in: Special Populations, Pregnancy and Fertility
  242. [242]

    Uldall Torp NM, Bruun NH, Christensen PA et al.. “Thyrotropin Receptor Antibodies in Early Pregnancy.” The Journal of clinical endocrinology and metabolism (2022). PMID: 35737956 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Special Populations, Pregnancy and Fertility
  243. [243]

    Hou X, Guan H, Sun S et al.. “Outcomes of Early-Pregnancy Antithyroid Drug Withdrawal in Graves' Disease: A Preliminary Prospective Follow-Up Study.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2022). PMID: 35651276 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Special Populations, Pregnancy and Fertility
  244. [244]

    McLachlan SM, Rapoport B. “Thyrotropin-blocking autoantibodies and thyroid-stimulating autoantibodies: potential mechanisms involved in the pendulum swinging from hypothyroidism to hyperthyroidism or vice versa.” Thyroid : official journal of the American Thyroid Association (2013). PMID: 23025526 ↗

    L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Special Populations, Pregnancy and Fertility
  245. [245]

    Le Moal J, Chesneau J, Goria S et al.. “Spatiotemporal variation of childhood hyperthyroidism: a 10-year nationwide study.” European journal of endocrinology (2022). PMID: 36074933 ↗

    L2OTHERCited in: Special Populations, Pregnancy and Fertility
  246. [246]

    Yamashita H, Yoshimoto K, Okamura M et al.. “Perioperative endocrine dynamics in euthyroid versus hyperthyroid patients with Graves' disease undergoing total thyroidectomy: a prospective cohort study.” BMC surgery (2026). PMID: 41904519 ↗

    L2COHORTCited in: Special Populations, Pregnancy and Fertility

Revision History

All updates applied to this page

Loading revisions…