On this page
Quick Reference
Overview and Recommendations
Background
- •Define deep vein thrombosis as the presence of a thrombus in the deep veins, which are surrounded by muscle and carry the majority of venous return, as opposed to superficial veins. DVT and are considered two manifestations of the same disease process, VTE, sharing the same risk factors and management principles.
- •Classify DVT by anatomical location into proximal and distal (isolated calf) variants. Proximal DVT involves the popliteal, femoral, or iliac veins and carries a much higher risk of PE and PTS, whereas distal DVT is confined to the calf veins (posterior tibial, anterior tibial, and peroneal) and has a lower, though non-zero, risk of propagation.
- •Understand the etiologic distinction between provoked and unprovoked DVT to guide the duration of therapy. Provoked DVT occurs in the setting of transient risk factors like major surgery, trauma, or immobilization, while unprovoked DVT occurs without an obvious trigger and suggests a higher baseline risk of recurrence.
- •Recognize the role of Virchow’s Triad—venous stasis, endothelial injury, and hypercoagulability—in the pathogenesis of clot formation. Common triggers include malignancy, pregnancy, hormonal therapy, and inherited thrombophilias such as Factor V Leiden.
- •Identify life-threatening variants such as phlegmasia cerulea dolens, which is characterized by massive venous occlusion leading to limb cyanosis and potential arterial compromise. This is a surgical emergency that requires aggressive intervention to prevent gangrene and limb loss.
Evaluation
- •Suspect DVT in any patient presenting with unilateral leg pain, swelling, warmth, or erythema. While these signs are non-specific, the presence of a 'heavy' sensation in the limb or pain that worsens with weight-bearing should increase clinical suspicion.
- •Perform a focused physical examination comparing the affected limb to the contralateral side. Measure the calf circumference 10 cm below the tibial tuberosity; a difference of >3 cm is a significant predictor of DVT.
- •Assess for pitting edema and the presence of prominent, non-varicose collateral superficial veins. Palpate along the course of the deep veins to identify localized tenderness, particularly in the popliteal fossa or along the medial thigh.
- •Calculate the Wells Score for DVT to categorize the patient’s pre-test probability as low (0 points), moderate (1-2 points), or high (≥3 points). This score includes factors such as active cancer, recent immobilization, and the absence of a more likely alternative diagnosis.
- •Order a high-sensitivity D-dimer test for patients with a low or moderate pre-test probability. A negative D-dimer (<500 ng/mL or age-adjusted threshold) effectively rules out DVT in these groups without the need for imaging.
- •Apply age-adjusted D-dimer thresholds for patients over 50 years old to improve specificity. The formula is age × 10 µg/L (e.g., a 70-year-old has a cutoff of 700 µg/L).
- •Obtain a compression ultrasonography (CUS) as the first-line imaging study for patients with a high Wells score or a positive D-dimer. The diagnostic hallmark is the non-compressibility of a venous segment under the ultrasound probe.
- •Utilize whole-leg ultrasound if there is high suspicion of distal (calf) DVT, though many protocols focus on proximal CUS (groin to popliteal) due to the higher clinical significance of proximal clots.
- •Consider CT or MR venography for suspected DVT in atypical locations, such as the iliac veins, vena cava, or upper extremities, especially when CUS is inconclusive or technically limited by body habitus.
- •Rule out common mimics such as , ruptured Baker’s cyst (popliteal cyst), muscle tear (e.g., 'tennis leg'), or lymphedema. Cellulitis typically presents with higher fever and more diffuse erythema, while a ruptured cyst often shows a 'crescent sign' of bruising near the malleolus.
- •Screen for underlying malignancy in patients with a first-time unprovoked DVT. This should generally be limited to age-appropriate cancer screening (e.g., colonoscopy, mammography) rather than extensive 'fishing' with whole-body CT scans unless symptoms suggest a specific primary site.
Management
- •Initiate anticoagulation immediately upon diagnostic confirmation, or even prior to imaging if suspicion is high and the bleeding risk is low. The primary goal is to prevent thrombus propagation and embolization.
- •Administer direct oral anticoagulants (DOACs) as first-line therapy for most non-pregnant patients. Apixaban is dosed at 10 mg BID for 7 days followed by 5 mg BID; Rivaroxaban is dosed at 15 mg BID for 21 days followed by 20 mg daily.
- •Utilize Low-Molecular-Weight Heparin (LMWH), such as Enoxaparin 1 mg/kg every 12 hours, as the preferred agent for patients with active malignancy or those who are pregnant. LMWH is also used as a bridge for patients starting Warfarin.
- •Prescribe Warfarin for patients with severe renal failure (CrCl <15 mL/min) or (APS). Target an International Normalized Ratio (INR) of 2.0–3.0, maintaining LMWH bridging until the INR is therapeutic for at least 24 hours.
- •Treat provoked DVT (e.g., post-surgery) for a fixed duration of 3 months. Extending therapy beyond 3 months in these cases increases bleeding risk without significantly reducing recurrence.
- •Consider indefinite anticoagulation for patients with unprovoked DVT or persistent risk factors like active cancer, provided the bleeding risk is acceptable. Re-evaluate the risk-benefit ratio annually.
- •Avoid the routine use of Inferior Vena Cava (IVC) filters. These should be reserved strictly for patients with proven acute proximal DVT who have an absolute contraindication to anticoagulation (e.g., active intracranial hemorrhage).
- •Refer patients with phlegmasia cerulea dolens or massive iliofemoral DVT with impending limb ischemia for catheter-directed thrombolysis or surgical thrombectomy. These interventions are not indicated for routine DVT.
- •Encourage early ambulation as soon as therapeutic anticoagulation is achieved. Bed rest does not reduce the risk of PE and may actually promote further stasis and clot propagation.
- •Prescribe graduated compression stockings (30–40 mmHg) for symptomatic relief of edema, though they are no longer routinely recommended solely for the prevention of post-thrombotic syndrome based on recent trial data.
- •Monitor for treatment-related bleeding. Educate patients on signs of hemorrhage and the importance of medication adherence. For patients on DOACs, routine coagulation monitoring (PT/INR) is not required.
- •Manage isolated distal (calf) DVT with either 3 months of anticoagulation or serial ultrasound monitoring over 2 weeks. Anticoagulation is preferred if the patient is severely symptomatic or has high-risk features for propagation.
- •Evaluate for May-Thurner Syndrome in young patients, particularly women, presenting with left-sided iliofemoral DVT. This involves compression of the left common iliac vein by the right common iliac artery and may require stenting after initial anticoagulation.
Board Review — High Yield
- •Wells Score — A score of ≥3 indicates high probability; <2 with a negative D-dimer rules out DVT.
- •Age-adjusted D-dimer — Use (Age x 10) ng/mL for patients >50 years to reduce false positives.
- •Phlegmasia cerulea dolens — Massive venous congestion causing a cyanotic, painful, swollen limb; high risk of gangrene.
- •May-Thurner Syndrome — Compression of the left common iliac vein by the right common iliac artery; suspect in young females with left-leg DVT.
- •Paget-Schroetter Syndrome — Upper extremity DVT caused by repetitive overhead activity (effort thrombosis).
- •Post-thrombotic Syndrome (PTS) — Chronic complication featuring edema, skin hyperpigmentation, and ulcers due to venous valve damage.
- •Trousseau Syndrome — Migratory superficial thrombophlebitis associated with visceral malignancy (especially pancreatic cancer).
- •Factor V Leiden — The most common inherited thrombophilia; caused by resistance to activated protein C.
Deep Dive — Evidence Details
Definition, Synonyms, and Classification of Deep Vein Thrombosis
- ▸DVT is classified as proximal if it involves the popliteal vein or higher, which carries a significantly higher risk of pulmonary embolism compared to distal (calf) DVT [3].
- ▸The distinction between provoked and unprovoked DVT is the primary determinant for the duration of anticoagulation therapy [3].
Deep vein thrombosis (DVT) is defined as the formation of a blood clot (thrombus) within the deep venous system, most commonly occurring in the lower extremities, which results in partial or total occlusion of venous blood flow and carries a significant risk of pulmonary embolism (PE) [3]D. DVT and PE are collectively referred to under the umbrella term venous thromboembolism (VTE), representing two manifestations of the same underlying pathological process [3]D. The clinical significance of DVT lies in its potential for acute life-threatening complications and long-term morbidity, such as chronic and post-thrombotic syndrome (PTS) [1].
Epidemiology and Risk Factors
- ▸DVT risk is concentrated in contexts combining surgery or trauma with immobility, venous stasis, inflammation, and patient comorbidity. [190][192][195][199][203]
- ▸Systematic ultrasonographic screening identifies asymptomatic DVT and may produce higher observed incidence than symptom-based diagnosis. [200][204][205]
- ▸Older age, fracture, restricted weight-bearing, delayed ambulation, prolonged operative duration, cancer, selected antineoplastic or immunomodulatory therapies, obesity with hormonal contraception, post-COVID illness, intracerebral hemorrhage, and critical illness with central venous access are clinically relevant risk contexts. [193][195][198][199][200][202][203][204][206][209]
- ▸After treated isolated distal DVT, recurrent VTE occurred in 15.3% of participants in the RIDTS post-hoc analysis, with the median recurrence occurring 6.2 months after anticoagulation cessation. [191]
- ▸Observed epidemiology depends on surveillance intensity, procedure type, prophylaxis, and follow-up duration. [190][192][200][203][204][205]
Overview
Deep vein thrombosis (DVT) is part of the broader spectrum of (VTE), which also includes (PE). In the current evidence base, the reported frequency of DVT varies substantially according to the population studied, the timing of assessment, and whether patients are screened systematically or investigated only when symptoms occur. [190][200][204][205]C Orthopaedic surgery remains an important setting because tissue injury, venous stasis, postoperative immobility, and patient comorbidity may coexist; the orthopaedic literature includes evidence from joint arthroplasty, fracture surgery, shoulder arthroscopy, foot and ankle surgery, and other procedures. [190][192][195][196][199][200][203][205]C
Patient-related risk factors
Older age is a recurrent risk context. Studies specifically evaluated older adults undergoing total knee arthroplasty and geriatric patients undergoing distal femur fracture surgery, populations in which perioperative DVT and other complications are clinically relevant. [196][199] Obesity may amplify thromboembolic risk in younger patients when combined with hormonal contraception: a large United States cohort evaluated 789,453 nonpregnant females aged 12–19 years to examine the combined association of body-mass index and contraceptive use with PE. [206] This study addressed PE rather than isolated DVT, but the findings are relevant to the shared VTE risk spectrum. [206]
Cancer and cancer-related treatment are important risk contexts. A study of cytoreductive surgery and hyperthermic intraperitoneal chemotherapy for appendiceal pseudomyxoma peritonei assessed postoperative DVT and PE in patients exposed to major oncologic surgery, prolonged procedures, and postoperative recovery. [204] Breast-cancer studies evaluated VTE during treatment with cyclin-dependent kinase 4/6 inhibitors combined with endocrine therapy, while a separate meta-analysis assessed nonfatal DVT, nonfatal PE, and concurrent DVT–PE among patients with rheumatoid arthritis receiving the JAK inhibitor upadacitinib. [193][197] These treatment-associated risks should be interpreted as disease- and therapy-specific rather than as evidence that every patient receiving these drugs will develop DVT. [193][197]
Recent or persistent COVID-19-related illness may also be relevant. A systematic review and meta-analysis examined thromboembolic events in people with post-COVID syndrome, specifically addressing whether thromboembolic events remain more frequent after the acute infection has resolved. [198] The available evidence concerns post-COVID thromboembolism broadly and does not establish that every persistent symptom represents, or independently causes, DVT. [198]
Procedure- and immobility-related risk factors
Fracture and surgery are prominent clinical contexts. Preoperative lower-limb DVT was investigated in 493 patients with distal femur fractures, with inflammatory blood markers used to develop a predictive model. [195] Diabetes was separately assessed as a modifier of postoperative complications in geriatric patients undergoing distal femur fracture surgery. [199] These studies support consideration of fracture severity, inflammatory status, age, diabetes, and the anticipated limitations on weight-bearing and mobility when evaluating risk, although the available abstracts do not establish that each factor independently predicts DVT in every fracture population. [195][199]
Operative duration may be an independent procedural risk factor. In a prospective cohort of 282 patients undergoing elective shoulder arthroscopy, bilateral lower-extremity Doppler ultrasonography was performed before surgery and on postoperative day 1, thereby identifying DVT that symptom-based surveillance could miss. [200] This study specifically examined operative duration and other demographic, clinical, and laboratory variables as predictors. [200] Major surgery with prolonged postoperative recovery was also the setting for evaluation of thromboembolic events after cytoreductive surgery and HIPEC. [204]
Reduced ankle movement and delayed ambulation contribute to venous stasis. Foot and ankle surgery followed by short-leg splint immobilization and restricted ankle motion for more than 2 weeks was evaluated with routine duplex ultrasonography at 2 weeks, regardless of symptoms. [205]C In joint arthroplasty, a retrospective cohort compared ambulation within 24 hours with later ambulation and assessed postoperative DVT among other outcomes. [203] Ankle-pump exercise has been studied as an adjunct to anticoagulant therapy because it is intended to improve lower-extremity venous return after surgery. [192]
Medical devices and high-risk clinical states
In critically ill patients, venous access devices are a potential thrombosis-related exposure. A propensity-score-matched cohort compared peripherally inserted central catheters with centrally inserted central venous catheters under standardized insertion protocols, with symptomatic thrombosis among the assessed outcomes. [209] Spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage is another high-risk state in which multiple DVT prediction models have been developed and critically evaluated; a systematic review identified 19 models across 15 studies, highlighting substantial interest but not validating a single universal risk score. [202]
Recurrence and prior venous thrombosis
A prior isolated distal DVT does not eliminate subsequent risk after anticoagulation. In the RIDTS post-hoc analysis, 61 of 398 (15.3%) patients without cancer experienced recurrent VTE after treatment; recurrence occurred at a median of 6.2 months after anticoagulation cessation. Most events were recurrent isolated distal DVT, although proximal DVT and symptomatic PE also occurred, and both symptomatic and asymptomatic recurrences were observed. [191] Superficial vein thrombosis of the leg is likewise linked with VTE and may extend or recur; the METRO randomized trial evaluated long-term secondary prevention after an initial 45-day course of fondaparinux. [194]
Interpretation of epidemiologic estimates
Reported DVT rates should not be compared directly across studies. Routine ultrasound screening detects asymptomatic events, whereas symptom-triggered diagnosis may underestimate incidence; this distinction was explicit in shoulder arthroscopy, foot and ankle surgery, and CRS-HIPEC studies. [200][204][205]C Preventive interventions, including intermittent pneumatic compression, anticoagulation, combined prophylaxis, and early mobilization, can also alter observed event rates and complicate comparisons between cohorts. [190][192][203]
| Risk context | Evidence base | Important qualification |
|---|---|---|
| Orthopaedic surgery, fracture, and arthroplasty | Reviews and cohorts involving joint replacement, fracture surgery, shoulder arthroscopy, and foot/ankle procedures [190][195][196][199][200][203][205]C | Risk estimates vary with procedure and surveillance method [200][205]C |
| Immobility or restricted movement | Splint immobilization for >2 weeks, delayed ambulation, and ankle-pump studies [192][203][205]C | These studies evaluate specific postoperative populations [192][203][205]C |
| Cancer and cancer therapy | CRS-HIPEC, CDK4/6 inhibitors, and upadacitinib meta-analysis [193][197][204] | Associations are disease- and treatment-specific [193][197] |
| Obesity plus hormonal contraception | Adolescent-female cohort assessing combined BMI and contraceptive exposure [206] | Primary outcome was PE rather than isolated DVT [206] |
| Critical illness or intracerebral hemorrhage | Central-catheter cohort and systematic review of DVT prediction models after spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage [202][209] | No single universal prediction model is established [202] |
| Previous thrombosis or superficial vein thrombosis | RIDTS recurrence analysis and METRO trial [191][194] | Recurrence and extension risks require population-specific interpretation [191][194] |
Etiology and Triggering Factors
- ▸DVT is best understood through the interacting mechanisms of venous stasis, hypercoagulability, and endothelial or vessel-wall injury. [46][49][50][70]
- ▸Cancer, major surgery, trauma, burns, critical illness, immobility, central venous catheters, and proximal venous obstruction can combine to produce thrombosis. [47][48][50][54][62][65][66]
- ▸Disaster-associated DVT has been reported in **10%–30%** of affected populations and often develops **1–2 weeks** after an earthquake. [45]
- ▸Central venous catheter exposure is a major pediatric DVT trigger; symptomatic PICC-related thrombosis occurred in **8.4%** of placements in one neurological ICU cohort. [48][68]
- ▸Cancer-associated inferior vena cava thrombosis was associated with malignancy in **39%** of cases versus **7.8%** among matched patients with isolated lower-extremity DVT. [212]
Overview
Deep vein thrombosis (DVT) develops through the interaction of three mechanistic domains traditionally summarized as Virchow’s triad: venous stasis, hypercoagulability, and endothelial or vessel-wall injury. [70]D Although commonly attributed to Rudolf Virchow, historical review indicates that the triad was not clearly formulated by him in the modern, routinely cited form. [70]D Contemporary evidence nevertheless supports these three processes as a useful framework for understanding venous thrombosis. [46]D[49]D[50]D
DVT is not purely a mechanical or coagulation disorder. Venous thromboembolism (VTE) is increasingly recognized as an inflammatory process involving platelets, coagulation pathways, immune cells, and the endothelium. [46]D Platelets may contribute to thrombus initiation, propagation, resolution, and recurrence through coagulation activation and interactions with endothelial and immune cells. [46]D Experimental vein-chip work further indicates that venous valves are important sites of thrombus formation: valve cusps experience disturbed flow and express an endothelial phenotype distinct from areas exposed to uniform flow. [64]D
Venous stasis and flow disturbance
Reduced venous flow is a major trigger for DVT. Immobility, prolonged hospitalization, critical illness, surgery, trauma, and constrained postures can reduce venous return and promote thrombosis. [45]D[50]D Disaster-associated VTE illustrates this mechanism: after major earthquakes, evacuation-shelter conditions may promote prolonged sitting, limited mobility, dehydration, and inadequate access to prevention; reported DVT incidence after earthquakes has ranged from 10% to 30%, often emerging 1–2 weeks after the disaster. [45]D
Prone positioning may add a posture-related component to venous stasis in critically ill patients. In a retrospective study of patients with COVID-19-associated acute respiratory distress syndrome who underwent venous-ultrasound screening, the duration of prone positioning was assessed as a potential DVT risk factor because SARS-CoV-2 infection already combines stasis, coagulation activation, and endothelial injury. [63]D The observation was hypothesis-generating rather than definitive because it was a small, single-center retrospective study involving 21 patients. [63]D
Severe burns can simultaneously produce stasis, endothelial injury, and hypercoagulability. [54]D[66]D In pediatric burn patients, major burns involving a large total body surface area were considered to fulfill all components of Virchow’s triad; the available study evaluated 95 pediatric patients with second- or third-degree burns admitted to a burn unit. [66]D Burn literature has not established a universal chemoprophylaxis protocol because reported VTE rates are inconsistent, prophylaxis can be complex and costly, and anticoagulation carries bleeding and other risks. [54]D
Endothelial and vessel-wall injury
Vascular injury may result from surgery, trauma, burns, inflammation, tumor invasion, venous compression, or intravascular devices. Surgical factors can promote thrombosis through intraoperative venous distension and microvascular endothelial damage, in addition to promoting stasis and hypercoagulability. [50]D Acute traumatic injury may be associated with pulmonary thrombi detected very early after injury, including in relatively young war-injured patients; this observation challenges the assumption that clinically relevant thrombosis requires prolonged immobility. [62]D
Central venous and peripherally inserted central venous catheters provide a direct local trigger through endothelial irritation, altered flow, and catheter-associated stasis. [48]D[68]D In a neurological intensive-care cohort involving 431 PICCs, symptomatic PICC-related large-vein thrombosis occurred in 8.4% of catheter placements. [68]D In critically ill children, central venous catheter placement and ICU admission are identified as the two most important risk factors for DVT, with newer risk factors corresponding to vessel-wall injury, altered hemostasis, and hypercoagulability. [48]D In children with upper-extremity DVT, central lines were the dominant provoking factor in secondary disease, reported in 100% of neonates and 92% of non-neonates; primary upper-extremity DVT was most commonly effort-related (87%). [67]D
Hypercoagulability and systemic prothrombotic states
Hypercoagulability may be inherited or acquired and can combine with local stasis or vessel-wall injury. [69]D Individual systemic risk factors include a previous VTE, cancer, advanced age, and inherited traits associated with excessive coagulation. [50]D Cancer promotes thrombosis through tumor-related vessel compression, direct vascular invasion, and cytokine release, while chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and surgery add exogenous prothrombotic influences. [47]D[51]D
Malignancy is particularly associated with thrombosis at unusual venous sites. In a study of inferior vena cava thrombosis, malignancy was present in 39% of patients compared with 7.8% of matched patients with isolated lower-extremity DVT; cancer-associated inferior vena cava thrombosis more often involved suprarenal or hepatic segments and extended to the right atrium. [212]C Renal cell carcinoma accounted for 38% of malignancies in that inferior vena cava thrombosis cohort. [212]C Cancer-associated abdominal thrombosis may involve splanchnic, ovarian, renal, or other abdominal veins and may be discovered incidentally during cancer staging or follow-up imaging. [47]D
Breast-cancer-associated thrombosis reflects several components of the triad, including tumor- or treatment-related hypercoagulability, chemotherapy-associated vessel injury, and indwelling catheters. [51]D Reported thrombotic rates with adjuvant chemotherapy in early-stage breast cancer range from 3% to 8%, are higher in postmenopausal women receiving chemotherapy, and increase when tamoxifen is combined with chemotherapy; tamoxifen-associated thrombosis was reported at approximately 0.9%, whereas aromatase inhibitors were not associated with an increased risk in the cited review. [51]D
Local obstruction and recurrence
Proximal venous outflow obstruction can create persistent stasis and may coexist with hypercoagulation. [65]D In a registry of 500 patients undergoing venous stenting for proximal outflow obstruction, 152 patients underwent preoperative hypercoagulation testing; the study specifically examined chronic postphlebitic changes, remote DVT, outflow obstruction, and coagulation abnormalities in patients with clinically “silent” DVT. [65]D These findings support evaluating both local obstruction and systemic thrombophilia when thrombosis is extensive, recurrent, proximal, or disproportionate to an obvious trigger. [65]D[69]D
Trigger combinations
Most clinically important DVT arises from overlapping triggers rather than one isolated abnormality. [46]D[50]D Examples include surgery in a patient with cancer, catheter placement during critical illness, immobilization after trauma, prone positioning during severe respiratory failure, or burns accompanied by systemic inflammation and reduced mobility. [54]D[48]D[63]D[62]D The cumulative effect of these factors determines risk, and the absence of prolonged immobility does not exclude early thrombosis after major trauma. [62]D
| Mechanism | Examples and supporting evidence |
|---|---|
| Venous stasis or disturbed flow | Immobility, hospitalization, surgery, disaster-shelter conditions, prone positioning, critical illness, and venous-valve cusp flow disturbance. [45]D[50]D[63]D[64]D |
| Endothelial or vessel-wall injury | Surgery, trauma, burns, inflammation, tumor invasion, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, and intravascular catheters. [47]D[48]D[50]D[51]D[54]D[62]D[68]D |
| Hypercoagulability | Cancer-associated coagulation activation, inherited or acquired thrombophilia, inflammation, platelet activation, and systemic responses to burns or severe infection. [46]D[47]D[49]D[54]D[66]D[69]D |
| Local obstruction | Tumor compression or invasion, proximal venous outflow obstruction, and inferior vena cava involvement. [47]D[65]D[212]C |
| Pediatric and upper-extremity triggers | Central lines in secondary upper-extremity DVT; effort-related triggers in primary upper-extremity DVT. [67]D |
Pathophysiology
- ▸DVT is a thromboinflammatory process involving venous stasis, endothelial activation, coagulation–fibrinolysis imbalance, platelet and leukocyte activity, and hypoxia. [74][223]
- ▸Reduced mobility after surgery or hospitalization promotes venous stasis; ankle-pump exercise and early mobilization are directed at improving venous return. [192][220]
- ▸NET formation, citrullinated histone H3, hypoxia-linked signaling, and macrophage activity contribute to thrombus persistence and post-thrombotic fibrosis. [77][95][219][223]
- ▸Rheumatoid arthritis is associated with a 50–100% excess risk of DVT and pulmonary embolism through inflammatory and haemostatic mechanisms. [221]
- ▸COVID-19 and long COVID can produce endothelial injury, platelet activation, impaired fibrinolysis, microthrombosis, and persistent hypercoagulability. [74]
Overview
Deep vein thrombosis (DVT) is best understood as a dynamic thromboinflammatory disorder rather than an isolated abnormality of coagulation. Venous thrombus initiation, propagation, and resolution are shaped by blood-flow disturbances, endothelial and platelet activation, coagulation–fibrinolysis imbalance, leukocyte activity, and local hypoxia. [223]D Venous thromboembolism (VTE), which includes DVT and pulmonary embolism, occurs at an estimated population rate of approximately 1–2 per 1,000 people annually, although risk varies substantially with clinical context. [224]D
Venous stasis and altered flow
Reduced lower-limb movement decreases venous return and promotes venous stasis, particularly after surgery, hospitalization, trauma, or prolonged sedentary behavior. [192][213][220] Ankle-pump exercise is proposed to counter this mechanism by enhancing lower-extremity venous return; its preventive effect is being evaluated as an adjunct to anticoagulant therapy because anticoagulation alone does not directly correct postoperative venous stasis. [192] Structured education after hip arthroplasty emphasizes early mobilization and other patient behaviors because reduced mobility is a modifiable contributor to postoperative venous stasis. [220]
Prolonged immobility associated with digital-device use has been described as “e-thrombosis.” In a retrospective adolescent thrombosis cohort, affected patients reported at least 4 hours of daily screen exposure, supporting prolonged screen-related inactivity as a potential, although observationally established, contributor to venous thrombosis. [215]C Hospital-acquired VTE likewise includes isolated DVT and pulmonary embolism arising during inpatient care; in one tertiary-center cohort, 393 patients had hospital-acquired VTE, including 308 with isolated DVT, 61 with isolated pulmonary embolism, and 24 with both presentations. [213]
Altered venous geometry and low-flow states can occur outside the lower limbs. During acute weightlessness and partial gravity, internal jugular venous cross-sectional area increased at selected gravity levels, particularly during 0.00-G, 0.25-G, and 0.50-G exposure on the left and during 0.00-G and 0.25-G exposure on the right. [214]C These findings demonstrate that altered gravitational loading can change venous distension and flow dynamics, although they do not by themselves establish DVT in humans. [214]C
Endothelial dysfunction, coagulation, and fibrinolysis
Endothelial injury or dysfunction can shift the venous wall toward thrombogenicity by promoting inflammatory signaling, platelet activation, and coagulation. [74][221]D[223]D Endothelial cell-specific molecule-1 (ESM1), a proteoglycan secreted by endothelial cells, illustrates the complexity of this response: circulating ESM1 was higher in people with VTE than in healthy controls (498.54 versus 198.68 pg/mL), yet experimental findings indicate that ESM1 can exert endogenous anticoagulant and protective effects. [96]D The combination of ESM1 and D-dimer improved diagnostic discrimination in the reported study, but elevated ESM1 may represent a compensatory response rather than a direct cause of thrombosis. [96]D
Thrombus formation also reflects impaired fibrinolysis. In COVID-19 and long COVID, endothelial injury, inflammatory cytokines, platelet activation, elevated D-dimer, fibrinogen dysregulation, and impaired fibrinolysis can produce persistent hypercoagulability, microthrombosis, and increased VTE risk. [74] Rheumatoid arthritis is associated with a 50–100% excess risk of DVT and pulmonary embolism in population-based studies; proposed mechanisms include chronic inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, platelet activation, impaired fibrinolysis, immune dysregulation, autoantibody-mediated responses, and disease-related disability. [221]D
Tranexamic acid provides a mechanistic example of the interaction between fibrinolysis and cellular thrombosis. It inhibits fibrinolysis by blocking lysine-binding sites on plasminogen and plasmin, but plasminogen-related signaling also involves leukocytes, endothelial cells, and platelets; consequently, its effect on thrombus formation may be cell-dependent and influenced by context and timing. [225]D
Immunothrombosis and hypoxia
Neutrophil extracellular traps (NETs) contribute to venous thrombus formation by linking innate immune activation with coagulation. Increased NET formation, reflected by higher citrullinated histone H3, was associated with an unfavorable fibrin-clot phenotype in patients with DVT and was investigated in relation to post-thrombotic syndrome (PTS). [77] More broadly, hypoxia within a stagnant or metabolically altered venous microenvironment can reprogram immune-cell function throughout thrombus initiation, formation, and resolution. [223]D
Macrophages and monocytes are central to thrombus organization and subsequent venous-wall injury. In experimental stasis and flow-restriction models, monocyte/macrophage depletion reduced late post-thrombotic fibrotic injury, indicating that these cells can promote venous-wall remodeling and PTS-related fibrosis even while participating in thrombus resolution. [219] Conversely, in a mouse model, cyanidin-3-O-glucoside reduced thrombus size during later resolution and was accompanied by increased intrathrombotic CD68-positive macrophages, reduced M1-associated inflammation, and attenuation of HIF-1α-linked signaling. [95]D These findings support a stage-dependent role for macrophages in which inflammatory and reparative functions may have different effects on thrombus persistence and venous-wall damage. [95]D[219]
Clinical settings that amplify thrombogenic mechanisms
Major surgery, including total hip arthroplasty, combines tissue injury, inflammation, reduced mobility, and altered coagulation, making postoperative DVT a frequent target of anticoagulant and mechanical prevention strategies. [76][192][220] Network meta-analysis research has evaluated traditional Chinese medicine decoctions after hip arthroplasty for effects on coagulation and DVT, but the cited evidence identifies this as an investigated preventive or therapeutic approach rather than establishing a specific causal pathway. [76] Mailuoning oral liquid has reported clinical use and supporting randomized-trial or real-world evidence in DVT and related vascular disorders; pharmacokinetic investigation identified multiple circulating constituents, but these data do not define the fundamental pathogenesis of DVT. [218]
Trauma may promote thrombosis through inflammation, occult vascular injury, and low-flow states. Severe chest trauma has been proposed as a risk factor for pulmonary embolism through these mechanisms, although the cited study specifically examined whether some post-traumatic pulmonary emboli may arise de novo in the lungs rather than from demonstrable DVT. [98]D Additional anatomic or disease-specific settings can also alter venous flow: autopsy investigation of autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease specifically assessed portal-vein and inferior-vena-cava thrombosis in relation to cystic kidney disease and associated fluid or organ abnormalities. [216]C
Overall, DVT develops when venous flow impairment, endothelial activation, coagulation, inadequate fibrinolysis, and immune-mediated inflammation reinforce one another. Persistence of NET-associated inflammation, hypoxia-linked signaling, and macrophage-driven venous-wall fibrosis can impede thrombus resolution and contribute to PTS after the acute event. [77][95]D[219][223]D
| Mechanism | Pathophysiological effect | Representative evidence |
|---|---|---|
| Venous stasis | Reduces venous return and favors thrombus initiation | Postoperative immobility, hospitalization, prolonged screen-related inactivity, and altered gravity or venous geometry. [192][213][214]C[215]C[220] |
| Endothelial and platelet activation | Promotes a thrombogenic vascular surface and inflammatory coagulation | COVID-19, rheumatoid arthritis, trauma, and experimental endothelial responses. [74][96]D[98]D[221]D |
| Impaired fibrinolysis | Limits thrombus breakdown and sustains hypercoagulability | COVID-19, fibrin-clot abnormalities, and cell-dependent effects of tranexamic acid. [74][77][225]D |
| Immunothrombosis and hypoxia | Couples leukocyte activation to coagulation and alters thrombus resolution | NETs, HIF-1α-linked signaling, and hypoxic immune reprogramming. [77][95]D[223]D |
| Venous-wall inflammation and fibrosis | Contributes to PTS after the acute thrombus | Monocyte/macrophage-dependent late fibrotic injury. [77][219] |
Clinical Features
- ▸Physical examination findings like Homan's sign are unreliable; diagnosis must rely on validated clinical prediction rules like the Wells Score.
- ▸For patients over 50 years of age, the D-dimer threshold should be age-adjusted (age × 10 µg/L) to safely rule out DVT while minimizing over-imaging.
The clinical presentation of (DVT) is notoriously variable, often described as a "hidden" condition due to its non-specific signs that frequently overlap with other musculoskeletal or vascular pathologies [107][122]D. A clinician must maintain a high index of suspicion, particularly in patients with known risk factors such as recent orthopedic surgery [100][110], obesity [104][105], or malignancy [126]D. The diagnostic process begins with a structured history and physical examination to determine the pre-test probability, which then dictates the necessity of further imaging or laboratory testing [122]D[125]D.
Diagnosis and Workup
- ▸Use objective venous ultrasonography to confirm suspected lower-extremity DVT in the postoperative and high-risk populations represented by the available evidence. [228][231][240][242]
- ▸Interpret D-dimer cautiously after total hip or knee arthroplasty because surgical trauma causes nonspecific elevation. [230]
- ▸Dynamic D-dimer trajectories and prediction models may support targeted imaging but do not replace diagnostic ultrasonography. [202][231][239][241][244]
- ▸Consider isolated calf-muscle vein thrombosis in elderly patients with hip fracture because it may be asymptomatic or overlooked. [242]
- ▸Do not extrapolate evidence on tumor thrombus, pulmonary artery thrombosis, prevention, or retinal vein occlusion to routine lower-extremity DVT diagnosis. [226][227][229][232][233][234][238][243]
Clinical assessment and diagnostic strategy
The available evidence supports a risk-adapted diagnostic workup rather than reliance on a single laboratory or prediction tool. In postoperative, neurologic, orthopedic, oncologic, and immobilized populations, studies have used lower-extremity venous ultrasonography to confirm DVT or lower-extremity DVT (LEDVT), including after intravenous thrombolysis for acute ischemic stroke, after arthroscopic rotator-cuff repair, and in patients with intracranial aneurysm surgery or hip fracture. [228][231][240]C[242] The supplied evidence does not establish a universal clinical score, ultrasound protocol, or D-dimer threshold that can be applied across all patient groups. [202][230][239][241][244]
D-dimer testing
D-dimer is useful only when interpreted in clinical context. A 2026 meta-analysis specifically evaluated its diagnostic performance for DVT screening after total hip or knee arthroplasty and emphasized that postoperative surgical trauma causes nonspecific D-dimer elevation, making diagnostic accuracy controversial in this setting. [230] Therefore, an elevated postoperative D-dimer should not by itself establish DVT, and a negative result should not be assumed to exclude thrombosis unless the assay, timing, pretest probability, and postoperative context support that interpretation. [230]
Dynamic rather than single-value D-dimer assessment has been investigated in selected high-risk populations. In patients undergoing emergency surgery for ruptured intracranial aneurysm, a multicenter retrospective cohort study used Gaussian-mixture modeling of D-dimer trajectories, LASSO variable selection, and internal-external validation to develop a nomogram for postoperative LEDVT prediction. [231] This approach may help identify patients requiring targeted imaging, but it remains a retrospective prediction model and is not a substitute for diagnostic imaging in a patient with suspected DVT. [231]
Venous ultrasonography
Venous ultrasonography was the confirmatory test used in several contemporary observational studies. In patients with acute ischemic stroke treated with intravenous thrombolysis, in-hospital lower-extremity DVT was defined by venous ultrasonography. [228] A prospective study after arthroscopic rotator-cuff repair enrolled patients without preoperative DVT and used lower-extremity ultrasonography to assess postoperative thrombosis, including asymptomatic events. [240]C In elderly patients with hip fracture, isolated calf-muscle vein thrombosis was specifically investigated as a frequently asymptomatic and potentially overlooked subtype, supporting attention to calf veins when the clinical question concerns distal thrombosis. [242]
The supplied studies do not provide sufficient evidence to specify when a limited examination should be extended to the entire lower extremity, how isolated distal thrombosis should be followed, or how a negative ultrasound should be repeated. These decisions should therefore be based on the initial examination, symptom evolution, pretest probability, and local imaging protocols rather than on the prediction models described below. [228][240]C[242]
Risk prediction and targeted workup
Prediction models may support triage but should not replace objective testing. A systematic review and meta-analysis of DVT prediction models in spontaneous intracerebral hemorrhage identified 19 models across 15 studies and assessed risk of bias and applicability with PROBAST; pooled area-under-the-curve estimates were analyzed using random-effects methods. [202] The review demonstrates substantial model-development activity but does not, from the supplied abstract, establish one externally validated model for routine diagnosis. [202]
In elderly patients with hip fracture, a retrospective study developed a nomogram for preoperative isolated calf-muscle vein thrombosis using readily available clinical parameters. [242] Another study developed a web-based machine-learning calculator for preoperative DVT in elderly hip-fracture patients using 18 clinical variables, with a development cohort of 405 patients and a temporal validation cohort of 133 patients. [239] These tools may help prioritize ultrasound in high-risk patients, but their retrospective design and population specificity limit generalization. [239][242]
After total knee arthroplasty, a multimodal deep-learning model combined early postoperative radiographs with electronic clinical data; the single-center cohort included 1,200 patients and reported an 18.0% DVT incidence. [241] The same report noted limited discrimination of conventional Caprini scoring, with an AUC of 0.65–0.72, but this comparison does not validate deep learning as a diagnostic test. [241] A separate machine-learning study of hospitalized patients analyzed 231 patients, including 159 with DVT and 72 without DVT, and internally validated a model based on routinely available clinical and laboratory indicators. [244] External validation and prospective impact on imaging decisions remain necessary. [244]
Special populations and diagnostic cautions
Early postoperative DVT remains possible despite prophylaxis. A retrospective cohort of patients undergoing head-and-neck cancer resection with free-flap reconstruction examined risk factors for very early DVT despite routine heparin prophylaxis. [235] In stroke patients receiving intravenous thrombolysis, early pharmacological prophylaxis was defined as initiation within 24–48 hours after repeat neuroimaging excluded intracranial hemorrhage; the study evaluated its association with in-hospital DVT but did not establish a diagnostic algorithm. [228]
The evidence should not be extrapolated to tumor thrombus or pulmonary vascular thrombosis. Studies of renal-cell-carcinoma venous tumor thrombus, hepatocellular-carcinoma portal-vein tumor thrombus, and Behçet-related pulmonary artery thrombosis address distinct disease processes that require separate imaging and specialist assessment. [232][233]C[234][238] Similarly, studies of intermittent pneumatic compression, nursing care, venous stenting, and retinal vein occlusion concern prevention, treatment, outcomes, or non-systemic vascular disease rather than diagnosis of conventional lower-extremity DVT. [226][227][229][243]C
| Clinical setting | Evidence relevant to workup | Practical implication |
|---|---|---|
| Total hip or knee arthroplasty | D-dimer diagnostic accuracy is affected by postoperative surgical-trauma elevation. [230] | Avoid interpreting an isolated postoperative elevation as diagnostic. |
| Acute ischemic stroke after IV thrombolysis | In-hospital lower-extremity DVT was confirmed by venous ultrasonography; prophylaxis timing was defined as 24–48 hours after negative repeat neuroimaging. [228] | Use ultrasound when DVT is suspected; prophylaxis timing is not a diagnostic criterion. |
| Ruptured intracranial aneurysm surgery | Dynamic D-dimer trajectories were incorporated into a retrospectively developed and internally-external validated nomogram. [231] | Risk stratification may guide imaging priority, but does not replace imaging. |
| Elderly hip fracture | Nomograms and a web-based machine-learning calculator targeted preoperative DVT or isolated calf-muscle vein thrombosis. [239][242] | Treat as population-specific triage tools pending broader validation. |
| Total knee arthroplasty | A multimodal model used radiographs and clinical data in 1,200 patients; conventional Caprini AUC was reported as 0.65–0.72. [241] | Predictive performance does not establish a diagnostic standard. |
Differential Diagnosis of Deep Vein Thrombosis
- ▸Vascular leiomyosarcoma should be suspected if an apparent DVT fails to respond to anticoagulation or shows interval growth on imaging [155, 161].
- ▸Cellulitis and DVT frequently coexist; age is a primary risk factor for this dual pathology [158].
The clinical presentation of deep vein thrombosis (DVT) is notoriously non-specific, often overlapping with a wide array of infectious, musculoskeletal, and neoplastic conditions. Because the sequelae of DVT—including and chronic venous —carry significant morbidity, clinicians must systematically exclude mimics while maintaining a high index of suspicion for concurrent pathologies [144]D. In many cases, conditions like or Charcot neuroarthropathy may not only mimic DVT but also serve as pro-inflammatory triggers for its development [154]D[158]D.
Special Populations
- ▸Pediatric VTE requires structured, long-term surveillance for post-thrombotic sequelae, although follow-up practice is not standardized. [245]
- ▸Cancer-associated dDVT, SSPE, and isolated splanchnic thrombosis require individualized anticoagulation decisions that incorporate recurrence, bleeding, symptoms, cancer status, and competing mortality. [22][253]
- ▸In APS, platelet thresholds of **<50 G/L**, **50–130 G/L**, and **≥130 G/L** define severe, moderate, and absent thrombocytopenia categories used in contemporary outcome assessment. [129]
- ▸Tumor thrombus in hepatocellular carcinoma or renal-cell carcinoma is malignant vascular invasion and should be distinguished from bland DVT. [232][238][248][251]
- ▸Perioperative prophylaxis after gynecologic and breast-related surgery should be based on total VTE and bleeding risk, not surgical approach or lymphatic reconstruction alone. [246][250][254]
Children and neonates
Long-term follow-up after pediatric venous thromboembolism (VTE) is needed to identify post-thrombotic sequelae, but international practice remains heterogeneous. The ASTRO-Kids survey assessed how pediatric thrombosis providers monitor, diagnose, and treat post-thrombotic complications after extremity and non-extremity VTE, with practices stratified by neonatal and non-neonatal populations. [245] Follow-up should therefore be individualized by age, thrombus location, symptoms, and suspected late complications, with local pediatric thrombosis expertise used where available. [245]
Cancer-associated thrombosis
Cancer-associated distal lower-extremity deep vein thrombosis (dDVT) and isolated subsegmental pulmonary embolism (SSPE) remain areas of management uncertainty. A retrospective cohort study specifically evaluated anticoagulant strategies, recurrent VTE, and major bleeding over 12 months in adults with active cancer and dDVT and/or SSPE; treatment decisions should account for cancer status, bleeding risk, thrombus burden, symptoms, and competing mortality. [22]
For isolated bland cancer-associated splanchnic vein thrombosis (CA-SpVT), evidence is also limited. A dual-center cohort excluded tumor thrombus and evaluated anticoagulation in 437 adults, examining major bleeding, usual-site VTE recurrence, and splanchnic-vein progression or recanalization while adjusting for cancer type, stage, location, and symptoms. [253] Splanchnic thrombosis should therefore be distinguished from tumor invasion, and anticoagulation should be individualized rather than inferred from conventional lower-extremity DVT alone. [253]
Patients with multiple myeloma may have clinically relevant VTE risk during treatment with proteasome inhibitors and/or immunomodulatory drugs. In a retrospective study of 357 newly diagnosed patients, the median age was 71 years and the reported 1-year cumulative incidence of VTE was 4.9%; a low geriatric nutritional index was investigated as a marker associated with VTE risk. [249]
In hormone receptor-positive, HER2-negative, non-metastatic breast cancer, CDK4/6 inhibitors are administered with endocrine therapy and have been associated with VTE risk. A systematic review and meta-analysis identified seven studies after screening 4,624 publications to evaluate this association. [197] VTE risk should be incorporated into treatment-related assessment, particularly when additional patient- or cancer-related risk factors are present. [197]
Adult-type diffuse gliomas present a competing thrombosis and intracranial-bleeding context. A single-center series included 147 patients, while a systematic review incorporated eight observational cohorts totaling 7,779 patients; the local cohort reported VTE in 5 patients (3.4%). [247] Decisions about anticoagulation require coordinated neuro-oncology, hematology, and neurosurgical assessment because the benefit of preventing recurrence must be balanced against intracranial hemorrhage risk. [247]
Gynecologic oncology and postoperative patients
After gynecologic cancer surgery, a systematic review and meta-analysis compared oral apixaban with enoxaparin for postoperative VTE prevention using randomized and cohort evidence identified through August 2025. [246] Enoxaparin remains the conventional comparator, whereas oral apixaban may offer an adherence advantage; selection should consider bleeding risk, renal function, drug interactions, gastrointestinal absorption, and patient preference. [246]
In a large observational study of 53,744 minimally invasive hysterectomies, including 1,258 robotic procedures, investigators assessed 90-day DVT and pulmonary embolism and compared outcomes according to pharmacologic LMWH prophylaxis. [254] The need for prophylaxis should be based on overall VTE and bleeding risk rather than surgical approach alone. [254] Among 61,819 axillary lymph-node dissections, 572 (0.93%) included concurrent prophylactic lymphovenous bypass; the study evaluated 30-day complications including DVT, reoperation, and wound complications. [250] Lymphatic reconstruction should not be regarded as a substitute for individualized perioperative VTE-risk assessment. [250]
Pregnancy and older adults
Pregnancy alters the clinical context of thrombotic risk and trauma care. A national trauma cohort evaluated pregnant patients aged 18–45 years with moderate-to-severe polytrauma, maternal mortality, early transfusion, and emergency cesarean timing; these findings underscore the need for coordinated obstetric, trauma, anesthesia, and thrombosis management when DVT is suspected or prophylaxis is considered. [252]
Older adults frequently have competing comorbidity and bleeding risks. In renal-cell-carcinoma patients with venous tumor thrombus, a propensity-matched study compared 88 patients aged ≥70 years with younger patients and found greater comorbidity and a higher proportion with ASA class ≥3 among geriatric patients. [234] Age alone should not determine intervention, but functional status, comorbidity, operative risk, and the distinction between bland thrombus and tumor thrombus are essential. [234]
Antiphospholipid syndrome and thrombocytopenia
Thrombocytopenia complicates anticoagulation decisions in antiphospholipid syndrome (APS). In a retrospective study of 432 patients with APS, 142 (32.9%) developed thrombocytopenia; patients were categorized by platelet nadir as severe <50 G/L, moderate 50–130 G/L, or no thrombocytopenia ≥130 G/L. [129] Management must balance thrombotic risk against bleeding risk and should be individualized according to platelet count, bleeding, thrombosis severity, and APS manifestations. [129]
Tumor thrombus: do not equate with bland DVT
Portal-vein tumor thrombus in hepatocellular carcinoma and venous tumor thrombus in renal-cell carcinoma represent malignant vascular invasion rather than ordinary bland DVT. Studies evaluated multimodal conversion therapy, hepatic arterial infusion chemotherapy with targeted or immune therapy, liver resection versus transarterial chemoembolization, cytoreductive nephrectomy with thrombectomy, and preoperative targeted therapy for inferior-vena-cava tumor thrombus. [232][238][248]C[251]C These treatment strategies are oncologic and surgical; anticoagulation should not be assumed to treat tumor thrombus unless a concurrent bland thrombotic component is suspected. [232][238][248]C[251]C
Systemic tyrosine-kinase inhibitors have also been examined in relation to vascular events. A multi-institutional electronic-health-record cohort assessed retinal artery and vein occlusions among adults with cancer receiving systemic TKIs, including agents with and without anti-VEGF activity. [255]C New visual symptoms during TKI therapy require urgent ophthalmologic evaluation rather than being presumed to represent lower-extremity DVT. [255]C
| Population or setting | Evidence-informed consideration |
|---|---|
| Children and neonates | Long-term follow-up is needed for post-thrombotic sequelae; monitoring practices vary internationally. [245] |
| Active cancer with dDVT/SSPE | Individualize anticoagulation and assess recurrence, major bleeding, symptoms, and competing mortality. [22] |
| Cancer-associated splanchnic thrombosis | Distinguish isolated bland thrombosis from tumor thrombus; evidence derives from a 437-patient retrospective cohort. [253] |
| APS with thrombocytopenia | Consider platelet nadir categories: <50 G/L, 50–130 G/L, and ≥130 G/L. [129] |
| Gynecologic cancer surgery | Apixaban has been compared with enoxaparin for postoperative prevention; assess bleeding, renal function, interactions, absorption, and adherence. [246] |
| Tumor thrombus | Manage as an oncologic/surgical condition; do not automatically treat as bland DVT. [232][238][248]C[251]C |
References
- [1]
Eklof B, Perrin M, Delis KT et al.. “Updated terminology of chronic venous disorders: the VEIN-TERM transatlantic interdisciplinary consensus document.” Journal of vascular surgery (2009). PMID: 19216970 ↗
L1cGUIDELINECited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification - [2]
Sun CR, Liu MY, Ni QH et al.. “Clinical Guidelines on Compression Therapy in Venous Diseases.” Annals of vascular surgery (2025). PMID: 39032593 ↗
L1cGUIDELINECited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification - [3]
Stevens SM, Woller SC, Baumann Kreuziger L et al.. “Antithrombotic Therapy for VTE Disease: Compendium and Review of CHEST Guidelines 2012-2021.” Chest (2024). PMID: 38458430 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification - [4]
Bayraktar Y. “Portal ductopathy: clinical importance and nomenclature.” World journal of gastroenterology (2011). PMID: 21472098 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification - [5]
Kumar A, Sharma P, Arora A. “Review article: portal vein obstruction--epidemiology, pathogenesis, natural history, prognosis and treatment.” Alimentary pharmacology & therapeutics (2015). PMID: 25475582 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification - [6]
Shenoy A, Davis JPE. “Contemporary management of portal vein thromboses in patients with and without cirrhosis.” Current opinion in gastroenterology (2025). PMID: 39998941 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification - [7]
Bayraktar Y, Harmanci O. “Etiology and consequences of thrombosis in abdominal vessels.” World journal of gastroenterology (2006). PMID: 16534866 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification - [8]
Harmanci O, Bayraktar Y. “Portal hypertension due to portal venous thrombosis: etiology, clinical outcomes.” World journal of gastroenterology (2007). PMID: 17552000 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification - [9]
Yamagishi T, Hikone M, Sugiyama K et al.. “Purpura fulminans with Lemierre's syndrome caused by Gemella bergeri and Eikenella corrodens: a case report.” BMC infectious diseases (2018). PMID: 30340466 ↗
L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification - [10]
Kahn F, Linder A, Petersson AC et al.. “Axillary abscess complicated by venous thrombosis: identification of Streptococcus pyogenes by 16S PCR.” Journal of clinical microbiology (2010). PMID: 20592151 ↗
L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification - [11]
Kupfer M, Kucer BT, Kupfer H et al.. “Persons With Chronic Spinal Cord Injuries in the Emergency Department: a Review of a Unique Population.” The Journal of emergency medicine (2018). PMID: 29807681 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification - [12]
Comarmond C, Mirault T, Biard L et al.. “Takayasu Arteritis and Pregnancy.” Arthritis & rheumatology (Hoboken, N.J.) (2015). PMID: 26315109 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification - [13]
de Haan HG, van Hylckama Vlieg A, van der Gaag KJ et al.. “Male-specific risk of first and recurrent venous thrombosis: a phylogenetic analysis of the Y chromosome.” Journal of thrombosis and haemostasis : JTH (2016). PMID: 27495181 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification - [14]
Zhang X, Durham KM, Garza AA et al.. “Portal vein thrombosis, hepatic decompensation, and survival in patients with porto-sinusoidal vascular disease and portal hypertension.” Journal of gastroenterology (2023). PMID: 36692825 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification - [15]
Munk MR, Kashani AH, Tadayoni R et al.. “Recommendations for OCT Angiography Reporting in Retinal Vascular Disease: A Delphi Approach by International Experts.” Ophthalmology. Retina (2022). PMID: 35202889 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification - [16]
Bayona Molano MDP, Brackett W, Mena P et al.. “Complex filter removal using forceps from combined transfemoral and transjugular approach unhooking the filter apex using forceps and dual access: Two case reports.” Journal of cardiac surgery (2022). PMID: 35819367 ↗
L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Definition, Synonyms, and Classification - [17]
Shen Y, Jiang Y, Wang Y et al.. “Increased risk of venous thromboembolism in children and teenagers with inflammatory bowel disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis.” PeerJ (2026). PMID: 41940394 ↗
L2aSR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [18]
Wen X, Wu H, He Y et al.. “Efficacy and safety of cyanoacrylate ablation vs endovenous radiofrequency ablation for varicose veins in chronic great saphenous vein insufficiency: A systematic review and meta-analysis.” Journal of vascular surgery. Venous and lymphatic disorders (2026). PMID: 41866115 ↗
L2aSR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [19]
Das S, Simunovic N, Di Maria F et al.. “Prophylaxis does not prevent symptomatic venous thromboembolism following anterior cruciate ligament surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis.” Journal of ISAKOS : joint disorders & orthopaedic sports medicine (2026). PMID: 41850529 ↗
L2aSR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [20]
Gong M, Kong J, Gu J et al.. “Who benefits from a filter? Developing clinical prediction models for thrombus dislodgement in hospitalized patients with deep vein thrombosis: A multicenter retrospective study.” European journal of radiology (2026). PMID: 41946015 ↗
L2bCOHORTCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Diagnosis and Workup - [21]
Chen H, Chen K, Xie X et al.. “Association between triglyceride glucose- systemic immune inflammation index and deep venous thrombosis in fresh fracture patient: a real-world retrospective study.” Frontiers in endocrinology (2026). PMID: 41907552 ↗
L2bCOHORTCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [22]
Kou R, Mallick R, Brown C et al.. “Anticoagulation management and outcomes in patients with cancer-associated small venous thromboembolism: a retrospective cohort study.” Journal of thrombosis and haemostasis : JTH (2026). PMID: 41791657 ↗
L2bCOHORTCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [23]
Wardak YH, Chung YE, Maingard J et al.. “Quality of life following endovascular treatment of proximal lower limb DVT: A systematic review and meta-analysis.” Journal of vascular and interventional radiology : JVIR (2026). PMID: 41905683 ↗
L2aSR_OBSCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [24]
Botolin P, Robles R, Keshishian C et al.. “Impact of Stroke History and Interval on Outcomes of Total Hip Arthroplasty: A Retrospective Cohort Study.” Orthopedics (2026). PMID: 41885516 ↗
L2bCOHORTCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Diagnosis and Workup - [25]
Zhai Y, Cao X, Zheng S et al.. “[Comparative observation of analgesic efficacy between liposomal bupivacaine and "cocktail" therapy following artificial intelligence-assisted direct anterior approach total hip arthroplasty: A prospective randomized controlled study].” Zhongguo xiu fu chong jian wai ke za zhi = Zhongguo xiufu chongjian waike zazhi = Chinese journal of reparative and reconstructive surgery (2026). PMID: 41981425 ↗
L1bRCTCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, History and Physical Examination, Diagnosis and Workup - [26]
Li Y, Wang S, Zhao X. “Risk factors for TIVAD-related venous thrombosis in Chinese breast cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy: A single-center retrospective study.” Medicine (2026). PMID: 41861226 ↗
L2bCOHORTCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Diagnosis and Workup, Special Populations - [27]
Skeith L, Bates SM. “Sex Hormone Influences on Venous Thrombotic and Cardiovascular Risk.” The New England journal of medicine (2026). PMID: 41985134 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [28]
Hou J, Mu G, Zhang Z et al.. “Hematological toxicities and thrombosis risk associated with immune checkpoint inhibitors: a pharmacovigilance study from 2014 to 2024.” Cancer immunology, immunotherapy : CII (2026). PMID: 41984243 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Special Populations - [29]
Mansour M, Asi AR, Massalha E et al.. “Residual Perfusion Defects after Acute Pulmonary Embolism: Prevalence, Determinants, and Clinical Impact.” The American journal of medicine (2026). PMID: 41941949 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [30]
Gonzalez HC, Gordon SC, Trudeau S et al.. “Impact of Disease-Specific Treatment and Non-Selective Beta Blockers on Risk of PVT in Cirrhotic Patients With HCV or PBC.” Liver international : official journal of the International Association for the Study of the Liver (2026). PMID: 41933920 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [31]
Jones GD, Raja S, Ahmad U et al.. “Prospectively Screening for Venous Thromboembolism in Patients with Esophagectomy for Cancer Improves Survival: The Complexity of Simplicity.” The Journal of thoracic and cardiovascular surgery (2026). PMID: 41932434 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [32]
Sohail A, Powers MT, Suarez T et al.. “Direct Oral Anticoagulants Are Associated With Less Bleeding Risk Than Warfarin in Patients Undergoing Liver Resections.” The Journal of surgical research (2026). PMID: 41921475 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [33]
Yang L, Zhang Z, Li C et al.. “Effect of different durations of compression therapy on quality of life and recurrence after thermal ablation for varicose veins: a protocol for a prospective, multicenter, randomized controlled trial.” Frontiers in medicine (2026). PMID: 41907264 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [34]
Yang S, Li G, Li Y et al.. “In-hospital deep vein thrombosis after tibial plateau fractures: incidence, laterality/anatomy, and risk factors in a multicenter retrospective cohort of 3366 patients.” Journal of orthopaedics and traumatology : official journal of the Italian Society of Orthopaedics and Traumatology (2026). PMID: 41886203 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [35]
Horton CE, Wi MS, Sayegh M et al.. “Short-term outcomes of ultrasound-assisted catheter-directed thrombolysis and mechanical thrombectomy in management of intermediate-risk pulmonary embolism.” Journal of vascular surgery. Venous and lymphatic disorders (2026). PMID: 41866114 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [36]
Mao J, Qin L, Gao M et al.. “Perioperative management of colorectal surgical patients receiving a direct oral anticoagulant: a scoping review, particular emphasis on procedure-specific risks, and pharmacogenomics.” Frontiers in cardiovascular medicine (2026). PMID: 41835471 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [37]
Doukhi D, Aghetti A, Siguret V et al.. “Specific Features of Cerebral Venous Thrombosis Associated With Iron Deficiency Anemia.” Journal of the American Heart Association (2026). PMID: 41804921 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [38]
Doiron JE, Corpodean F, Kachmar M et al.. “Prevalence of early marginal ulcer in sleeve to bypass conversions: an analysis of the 2020-2022 MBSAQIP.” Surgery for obesity and related diseases : official journal of the American Society for Bariatric Surgery (2026). PMID: 41791958 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [39]
Fu P, Li Y, Wang C et al.. “Deletion of platelet STK10 impairs deep vein thrombus formation.” Journal of thrombosis and haemostasis : JTH (2026). PMID: 41791658 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [40]
Daghlas I, Perez-Alcantara M, Gill D. “Direct Oral Anticoagulant Protein Targets and Risk of Cerebral Venous Thrombosis: A Mendelian Randomization Study.” Neurology (2026). PMID: 41785432 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [41]
Wu S, Qiu F, Zhang F et al.. “Hepatic arterial infusion chemotherapy combined with apatinib plus camrelizumab for advanced hepatocellular carcinoma with type Vp4 portal vein tumor thrombosis: a multicenter propensity score-matching analysis.” Frontiers in immunology (2026). PMID: 41782861 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Diagnosis and Workup, Special Populations - [42]
Ye H, Li J, Du L et al.. “Development and validation of a deep vein thrombosis risk assessment tool for surgical patients aged 75 years and older.” BMC geriatrics (2026). PMID: 41782093 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors, Diagnosis and Workup - [43]
Sobih NM, Vellema J, van de Munckhof A et al.. “Impact of anaemia severity on functional outcome in patients with cerebral venous thrombosis: a DOAC-CVT substudy.” European stroke journal (2026). PMID: 41758562 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [44]
Ke X, Liu Y, Chen X et al.. “Association between preoperative anemia and postoperative delirium in elderly patients undergoing total hip arthroplasty with combined spinal-epidural anesthesia: A retrospective cohort study.” Journal of anesthesia and translational medicine (2025). PMID: 41929925 ↗
L2bCOHORTCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [45]
Kamada K, Fukaya E, Iwata E et al.. “Disaster-associated venous thromboembolism countermeasures in Japan: Insights from past major earthquakes.” Journal of vascular surgery. Venous and lymphatic disorders (2026). PMID: 40935330 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Pathophysiology - [46]
Liu S, Shen Y, Chen J et al.. “The critical role of platelets in venous thromboembolism: Pathogenesis, clinical status, and emerging therapeutic strategies.” Blood reviews (2025). PMID: 40382294 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Pathophysiology - [47]
Muscat-Baron L, Borg AL, Attard LM et al.. “Cancer-Associated Abdominal Vein Thrombosis.” Cancers (2023). PMID: 37958466 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors - [48]
Johnson RR, Faustino EVS. “Central venous catheter-associated deep vein thrombosis in critically ill pediatric patients: risk factors, prevention, and treatment.” Current opinion in pediatrics (2022). PMID: 35634701 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors - [49]
Hembrom AA, Srivastava S, Garg I et al.. “MicroRNAs in venous thrombo-embolism.” Clinica chimica acta; international journal of clinical chemistry (2020). PMID: 32017924 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors - [50]
Caprini JA. “Risk assessment as a guide for the prevention of the many faces of venous thromboembolism.” American journal of surgery (2010). PMID: 20103082 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors - [51]
Levine MN. “Adjuvant therapy and thrombosis: how to avoid the problem?” Breast (Edinburgh, Scotland) (2007). PMID: 17720502 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors - [52]
Didembourg M, Morimont L, De Gottal E et al.. “The maternal hemostatic shift: Understanding VTE risk in pregnancy and postpartum.” Thrombosis research (2026). PMID: 41352199 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Pathophysiology, Special Populations - [53]
Mehta JL, Calcaterra G, Bassareo PP. “COVID-19, thromboembolic risk, and Virchow's triad: Lesson from the past.” Clinical cardiology (2020). PMID: 33176009 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors - [54]
Liu A, Minasian RA, Maniago E et al.. “Venous Thromboembolism Chemoprophylaxis in Burn Patients: A Literature Review and Single-Institution Experience.” Journal of burn care & research : official publication of the American Burn Association (2021). PMID: 32842151 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors - [55]
Stone J, Hangge P, Albadawi H et al.. “Deep vein thrombosis: pathogenesis, diagnosis, and medical management.” Cardiovascular diagnosis and therapy (2017). PMID: 29399531 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors - [56]
Byrnes JR, Wolberg AS. “New findings on venous thrombogenesis.” Hamostaseologie (2017). PMID: 27878206 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors - [57]
Congly SE, Lee SS. “Portal vein thrombosis: should anticoagulation be used?” Current gastroenterology reports (2013). PMID: 23314804 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors - [58]
López JA, Chen J. “Pathophysiology of venous thrombosis.” Thrombosis research (2009). PMID: 19303501 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors - [59]
Haas P, Landgraf H. “Studies on travel-related thrombosis.” VASA. Zeitschrift fur Gefasskrankheiten (2008). PMID: 19003739 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors - [60]
Merli GJ. “Pathophysiology of venous thrombosis, thrombophilia, and the diagnosis of deep vein thrombosis-pulmonary embolism in the elderly.” Clinics in geriatric medicine (2006). PMID: 16377468 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors - [61]
Savulescu-Fiedler I, Siliste RN, Homentcovschi C et al.. “The role of endothelial cell protein C receptor gene polymorphism in venous thromboembolic disease: a case report and literature review.” Blood coagulation & fibrinolysis : an international journal in haemostasis and thrombosis (2025). PMID: 40643034 ↗
L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors, Pathophysiology - [62]
Sasson I, Sorin V, Ziv-Baran T et al.. “Unexpected early pulmonary thrombi in war injured patients.” European radiology (2026). PMID: 40833493 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors - [63]
Gebhard CE, Zellweger N, Gebhard C et al.. “Prone Positioning as a Potential Risk Factor for Deep Vein Thrombosis in COVID-19 Patients: A Hypothesis Generating Observation.” Journal of clinical medicine (2021). PMID: 35011843 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors - [64]
Rajeeva Pandian NK, Walther BK, Suresh R et al.. “Microengineered Human Vein-Chip Recreates Venous Valve Architecture and Its Contribution to Thrombosis.” Small (Weinheim an der Bergstrasse, Germany) (2020). PMID: 33205630 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors - [65]
Lurie JM, Png CYM, Subramaniam S et al.. “Virchow's triad in "silent" deep vein thrombosis.” Journal of vascular surgery. Venous and lymphatic disorders (2019). PMID: 31078515 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors - [66]
Alturki N, Alkahtani M, Daghistani M et al.. “Incidence and risk factors for deep vein thrombosis among pediatric burn patients.” Burns : journal of the International Society for Burn Injuries (2019). PMID: 31018912 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors - [67]
Avila ML, Duan L, Cipolla A et al.. “Postthrombotic syndrome following upper extremity deep vein thrombosis in children.” Blood (2014). PMID: 24957144 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors - [68]
Wilson TJ, Brown DL, Meurer WJ et al.. “Risk factors associated with peripherally inserted central venous catheter-related large vein thrombosis in neurological intensive care patients.” Intensive care medicine (2012). PMID: 22113818 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors - [69]
Bittencourt PL, Couto CA, Ribeiro DD. “Portal vein thrombosis and budd-Chiari syndrome.” Clinics in liver disease (2009). PMID: 19150317 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors - [70]
Bagot CN, Arya R. “Virchow and his triad: a question of attribution.” British journal of haematology (2008). PMID: 18783400 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors - [71]
Shaydakov ME, Diaz JA, Eklöf B et al.. “Venous valve hypoxia as a possible mechanism of deep vein thrombosis: a scoping review.” International angiology : a journal of the International Union of Angiology (2024). PMID: 38864688 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors - [72]
Sapota-Zaręba K, Nasierowski T. “The risk of pulmonary embolism in the context of various clinical situations and management in psychiatric patients.” Psychiatria polska (2023). PMID: 38345121 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors - [73]
Malone PC, Agutter PS. “The aetiology of deep venous thrombosis.” QJM : monthly journal of the Association of Physicians (2006). PMID: 16905749 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors - [74]
Stojanovic M, Djuric M, Nenadic I et al.. “Vascular Complications of Long COVID-From Endothelial Dysfunction to Systemic Thrombosis: A Systematic Review.” International journal of molecular sciences (2025). PMID: 41516301 ↗
L2aSR_OBSCited in: Pathophysiology - [75]
Gandhi SD, Mohanty S, von Riegen H et al.. “Efficacy and Safety of Chemical Venous Thromboembolism Prophylaxis in Spine Trauma Patients: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis Comparing Anticoagulant Types.” Clinical spine surgery (2026). PMID: 40071770 ↗
L2aSR_OBSCited in: Pathophysiology - [76]
Shi H, Zhao Y, Shi X et al.. “Effects of traditional Chinese medicine decoctions on coagulation and deep vein thrombosis after total hip arthroplasty: Network meta-analysis.” Explore (New York, N.Y.) (2026). PMID: 41232428 ↗
L2aSR_OBSCited in: Pathophysiology - [77]
Krupa-Zabiegała J, Michel PS, Stępień K et al.. “Higher citrullinated histone H3 is associated with postthrombotic syndrome: a cohort study.” Journal of thrombosis and haemostasis : JTH (2026). PMID: 41192568 ↗
L2bCOHORTCited in: Pathophysiology - [78]
Peng J, Long S, Feng L. “Deep Vein Thrombosis Prevention in Acute Ischemic Stroke Patients with Lower Limb Paralysis: A Narrative Review.” Journal of clinical medicine (2026). PMID: 41899016 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology - [79]
Sparić R, Stojković M, Šarac M et al.. “Venous Thromboembolism Associated with Uterine Fibroids: A Review of Reported Cases.” Journal of clinical medicine (2026). PMID: 41598382 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology, History and Physical Examination - [80]
Albasanz-García P, Ward MP, Norris LA. “Mechanisms of anticancer treatment-induced arterial and venous thrombosis.” Journal of thrombosis and haemostasis : JTH (2026). PMID: 41203043 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology - [81]
Limper U, Jordan J. “Neck-vein thrombosis during spaceflight.” British journal of clinical pharmacology (2026). PMID: 41035389 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology - [82]
Piazza G, Krishnathasan D, Hamade N et al.. “Superficial Vein Thrombosis: A Review.” JAMA (2025). PMID: 40952730 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology - [83]
Dhar R, Dos Passos RR, Gower RM et al.. “Toward targeting of inflammasome signaling in venous thrombosis.” Journal of thrombosis and haemostasis : JTH (2025). PMID: 40946806 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology - [84]
Galanaud JP, Laroche JP, Righini M. “The history and historical treatments of deep vein thrombosis: toward the era of new anticoagulants.” Journal of thrombosis and haemostasis : JTH (2025). PMID: 40714194 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology - [85]
Shao W, Wang Z, Wu J et al.. “Targeting toll-like receptors: unveiling potential therapeutic strategies for deep vein thrombosis.” Frontiers in immunology (2025). PMID: 40510367 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology - [86]
Byun JH, Jung J, Woo J. “Clonal hematopoiesis and thromboembolic diseases: a review.” Journal of thrombosis and haemostasis : JTH (2025). PMID: 40499722 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology - [87]
Badulescu OV, Ciocoiu M, Vladeanu MC et al.. “The Role of Platelet Dysfunctions in the Pathogenesis of the Hemostatic-Coagulant System Imbalances.” International journal of molecular sciences (2025). PMID: 40141398 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology - [88]
Budnik I, Kumskova M, Chauhan AK. “Metabolic pathways in deep vein thrombosis: a new frontier for therapeutic intervention.” Blood (2025). PMID: 40132161 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology - [89]
Davis J, Maranto M, Kennedy J et al.. “Transforming Growth Factors in Venous Thrombus Formation and Resolution.” Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, and vascular biology (2025). PMID: 40109257 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology - [90]
Cox C, Roberts LN. “Basics of diagnosis and treatment of venous thromboembolism.” Journal of thrombosis and haemostasis : JTH (2025). PMID: 39938684 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology - [91]
Secades D, Dufner Krieger S, Hidalgo Ramos RA et al.. “Incidence of Deep Vein Thrombosis in Patients With COVID-19: A Systematic Review.” Cureus (2025). PMID: 40861621 ↗
L2aSR_OBSCited in: Pathophysiology - [92]
Papadakis E, Gavriilaki E, Kotsiou N et al.. “Fright of Long-Haul Flights: Focus on Travel-Associated Thrombosis.” Seminars in thrombosis and hemostasis (2025). PMID: 40015328 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology - [93]
Kell DB, Pretorius E. “The Proteome Content of Blood Clots Observed Under Different Conditions: Successful Role in Predicting Clot Amyloid(ogenicity).” Molecules (Basel, Switzerland) (2025). PMID: 39942772 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Pathophysiology - [94]
Denorme F, Portier I, Castro H et al.. “Platelet mTOR Is a Regulator of Sterile Immunothrombosis.” Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, and vascular biology (2026). PMID: 41783929 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Pathophysiology - [95]
Shen YJ, Nie ZY, Zhang JQ et al.. “Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside promotes late-stage venous thrombus resolution in mice, accompanied by reduced macrophage M1-associated inflammation and attenuated HIF-1α-linked signaling.” Food & function (2026). PMID: 41734240 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Pathophysiology - [96]
Chen C, Ge X, Fu D et al.. “Endothelial Cell-Specific Molecule-1 (ESM1): An Endogenous Anticoagulant and Protective Factor in Venous Thrombosis.” Advanced science (Weinheim, Baden-Wurttemberg, Germany) (2026). PMID: 41517829 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Pathophysiology - [97]
Suzuki N, Suzuki A, Tamura S et al.. “Antithrombotic Therapy on Antithrombin Resistance in a Mouse Model.” Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, and vascular biology (2026). PMID: 41503699 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Pathophysiology - [98]
Wongweerakit O, Sangthong B, Akaraborworn O et al.. “De novo pulmonary embolism following chest trauma: fact or fiction?” European journal of trauma and emergency surgery : official publication of the European Trauma Society (2025). PMID: 41410754 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Pathophysiology - [99]
Noda H, Yutani C, Takahashi S et al.. “Morphological Visualization of Thrombi During Catheter-Directed Fibrinolytic Therapy for Pulmonary Thromboembolism.” The journal of histochemistry and cytochemistry : official journal of the Histochemistry Society (2026). PMID: 41292114 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Pathophysiology - [100]
Shi TL, Yang ZB, Zhang YQ et al.. “Vibration-stimulation device-assisted enhanced recovery after lower limb fracture surgery: A randomized controlled trial.” International orthopaedics (2026). PMID: 41413326 ↗
L1bRCTCited in: History and Physical Examination - [101]
Betensky M, Mosha M, Ashour D et al.. “Postthrombotic syndrome-related chronic limb pain in children: findings from the Multicenter Evaluation of the Duration of Therapy for Thrombosis in Children (Kids-DOTT) trial.” Journal of thrombosis and haemostasis : JTH (2026). PMID: 41407160 ↗
L1bRCTCited in: History and Physical Examination - [102]
Le Gal G, Robert-Ebadi H, Thiruganasambandamoorthy V et al.. “Age-Adjusted D-Dimer Cutoff Levels to Rule Out Deep Vein Thrombosis.” JAMA (2026). PMID: 41490105 ↗
L2bTRIAL_NONRANDOMCited in: History and Physical Examination - [103]
Kang T, Han S, Lu YL et al.. “Artificial intelligence risk stratification from dynamic digital subtraction angiography radiomics predicts pulmonary embolism and associates with clinical outcomes in deep vein thrombosis: A retrospective cohort study.” Journal of vascular surgery. Venous and lymphatic disorders (2026). PMID: 41638306 ↗
L2bCOHORTCited in: History and Physical Examination - [104]
Simard C, Le Gal G, Lazo-Langner A et al.. “Association Between Bariatric Surgery and the Long-Term Risk for Venous Thromboembolism: A Population-Based Matched Cohort Study.” American journal of hematology (2026). PMID: 41588795 ↗
L2bCOHORTCited in: History and Physical Examination - [105]
Klimitz FJ, Knoedler S, Fabi A et al.. “Weighing the Risk: The Impact of Obesity on 30-Day Complications After Cosmetic Abdominoplasty-An Observational Cohort Study of 1,778 Cases.” Aesthetic plastic surgery (2026). PMID: 41201611 ↗
L2bCOHORTCited in: History and Physical Examination - [106]
Ye Y, Mahati S, Aihemaiti W et al.. “A postpartum-adapted algorithm for safe management of suspected pulmonary embolism: a retrospective cohort study.” American journal of obstetrics and gynecology (2026). PMID: 41183725 ↗
L2bCOHORTCited in: History and Physical Examination - [107]
. “[Guidelines for the management of cerebral venous thrombosis during pregnancy and the puerperium (2025 edition)].” Zhonghua yi xue za zhi (2025). PMID: 41145272 ↗
L1cGUIDELINECited in: History and Physical Examination - [108]
Abbattista M, Truma A, Martinelli I et al.. “The risk of cerebral vein thrombosis associated with different types of combined hormonal contraceptives: a case-control study.” Journal of thrombosis and haemostasis : JTH (2025). PMID: 40617503 ↗
L3bCASE_CONTROLCited in: History and Physical Examination - [109]
Li S, Wang M, Xu Y. “Predictors of pulmonary infarction in pediatric pulmonary embolism: A retrospective cohort study.” Thrombosis research (2025). PMID: 41086550 ↗
L2bCOHORTCited in: History and Physical Examination - [110]
Ajrawat P, Price B, Gooch D et al.. “Assessing Postoperative Pain in Patients Who Underwent Total Knee Arthroplasty Using an Automated Self-Logging Patient-Reported Outcome Measure Collection Device: Retrospective Cohort Study.” JMIR human factors (2025). PMID: 40638842 ↗
L2bCOHORTCited in: History and Physical Examination - [111]
Ren Y, Liu R. “Prevalence and risk factors of deep vein thrombosis in elderly: a systematic review and meta-analysis.” Open medicine (Warsaw, Poland) (2026). PMID: 41726136 ↗
L2aSR_OBSCited in: History and Physical Examination - [112]
Kargar-Soleimanabad S, Najafi S, Ahmadi M et al.. “Diagnostic value of the wells score for lower extremity deep vein thrombosis in hospitalized patients: A case-control study.” Phlebology (2026). PMID: 41489509 ↗
L3bCASE_CONTROLCited in: History and Physical Examination - [113]
Zhao Y, Zhou T, Fang Q et al.. “Short-term outcomes after hybrid unicompartmental knee arthroplasty: A retrospective cohort study with minimum 3-year follow-up.” Medicine (2026). PMID: 41861224 ↗
L2bCOHORTCited in: History and Physical Examination, Diagnosis and Workup - [114]
Benseler A, Gien LT, Swift B et al.. “Association of body mass index and length of stay in patients undergoing minimally invasive surgery for uterine cancer: a National Surgical Quality Improvement Program (NSQIP) study.” International journal of gynecological cancer : official journal of the International Gynecological Cancer Society (2026). PMID: 41774951 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination, Diagnosis and Workup, Special Populations - [115]
Kulachote N, Phoophiboon P, Chanplakorn P et al.. “Risk Factors for Preoperative DVT in Elderly Patients with Hip Fractures.” Journal of clinical medicine (2026). PMID: 41753171 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination - [116]
Fu C, Chen J, Shen Z et al.. “Plasma Protein Mediation of the Association Between Blood Pressure and Retinal Vascular Occlusion.” Translational vision science & technology (2025). PMID: 41324311 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination - [117]
Smadi Z, Lingam S, Muwalla R et al.. “Weight on the fixation: the influence of body mass index on lower extremity fracture fixation outcomes.” Injury (2025). PMID: 41197500 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination - [118]
Xu JJ, Johnson MC, Lama G et al.. “The Effect of Body Mass Index on the Efficacy of Semaglutide Use at the Time of Total Knee Arthroplasty.” The Journal of arthroplasty (2026). PMID: 41072554 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination - [119]
Akar B, Oztürkmen Y, Balioglu MB et al.. “The Effect of Obesity on Simultaneous Bilateral Knee Arthroplasty Surgery.” Journal of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons. Global research & reviews (2025). PMID: 40981512 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination - [120]
Hoedemakers T, van Hattum ES, Petri BJ et al.. “Upper extremity post-thrombotic syndrome score: consensus results from an international Delphi study.” Journal of thrombosis and haemostasis : JTH (2025). PMID: 40973017 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination - [121]
O'Connor B, Meister K, Fellner A et al.. “Analyzing the Adequacy of BMI-Tiered Enoxaparin Dosing for Venous Thromboembolism Prophylaxis in the Bariatric Surgery Population Based on Anti-Factor Xa Assay Data.” Obesity surgery (2025). PMID: 40615759 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination - [122]
Canas A, Epstein J, Chen T et al.. “Diagnosis of Venous Thromboembolism.” The Medical clinics of North America (2025). PMID: 40500082 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: History and Physical Examination - [123]
Jin C, Hu Y, Liu F. “Clinical characteristics, clinical laboratories, and risk factors of elderly patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease complicated with pulmonary embolism.” Frontiers in medicine (2025). PMID: 40438367 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination - [124]
Kumar S, Nasef H, Yates Z et al.. “Association of Body Mass Index With Severe Sepsis Outcomes in Critically-Ill Severely Injured Adult Trauma Patients: A National Analysis.” The Journal of surgical research (2025). PMID: 40378666 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination - [125]
Cherkaoui M, Al-Attabi M, Salimi S et al.. “Proximal venous ultrasound with risk stratification safely excludes deep venous thrombosis in emergency department routine care: an observational study.” Scandinavian journal of trauma, resuscitation and emergency medicine (2025). PMID: 40369661 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination - [126]
Masuda Y, Konishi T, Yakushijin Y et al.. “Impact of body mass index on D-dimer diagnostic utility for deep vein thrombosis in patients with cancer: a single-center retrospective analysis.” International journal of clinical oncology (2025). PMID: 40355784 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination - [127]
Daher M, Liu J, Smith N et al.. “Short-term outcomes of outpatient total joint arthroplasty in morbidly obese patients.” European journal of orthopaedic surgery & traumatology : orthopedie traumatologie (2025). PMID: 40349255 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: History and Physical Examination - [128]
Waseem MH, Abideen ZU, Rissardo JP et al.. “Comparing Efficacy and Safety of Different Anticoagulants in Cerebral Venous Thrombosis: A Systematic Review and Network Meta-Analysis.” Clinical and applied thrombosis/hemostasis : official journal of the International Academy of Clinical and Applied Thrombosis/Hemostasis (2026). PMID: 41773593 ↗
L2aSR_OBSCited in: Diagnosis and Workup - [129]
Schmidt C, Papo M, Taïeb D et al.. “Severe thrombocytopenia in antiphospholipid syndrome: a retrospective study of 432 patients.” RMD open (2026). PMID: 41956709 ↗
L2bCOHORTCited in: Diagnosis and Workup, Special Populations - [130]
Huang J, Lin P, Wang L et al.. “Case Report: Primary vascular sarcoma presenting as massive pulmonary embolism salvaged by veno-arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation and interventional therapy.” Frontiers in cardiovascular medicine (2026). PMID: 41940087 ↗
L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Diagnosis and Workup - [131]
Mo R, Yu S, Xu H et al.. “Upadacitinib in refractory ulcerative colitis patients with high thromboembolic risk: two case reports.” Frontiers in immunology (2026). PMID: 41853288 ↗
L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Diagnosis and Workup - [132]
Hu H, Cai D, Li J et al.. “Pulmonary infection by Nocardia saintgeorgesii mimicking lung cancer with concurrent pulmonary embolism in an immunocompetent host: a case highlighting the diagnostic role of mNGS.” Frontiers in cellular and infection microbiology (2026). PMID: 41822328 ↗
L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Diagnosis and Workup, Differential Diagnosis, Special Populations - [133]
Xu C, Annapureddy H, Carson L et al.. “Impact of a factor Xa inhibitor (apixaban) on SIV pathogenesis and response to antiretroviral therapy.” JCI insight (2026). PMID: 41948932 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup - [134]
Mukund A, Thakur V, Jindal A et al.. “Long-Term Efficacy and Outcomes of Endovascular Interventions in Budd-Chiari Syndrome-A Real World Analysis.” Liver international : official journal of the International Association for the Study of the Liver (2026). PMID: 41947698 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup - [135]
Terao R, Fujino R, Hayashi K et al.. “Role of Autotaxin in the Pathogenesis of Retina Ischemia and Its Therapeutic Implications.” International journal of molecular sciences (2026). PMID: 41898636 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup - [136]
Deng Y, Liu Y, Li X et al.. “Delayed anti-vascular endothelial growth factor therapy in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and branch retinal vein occlusion-associated macular edema negatively affects visual outcomes.” Frontiers in endocrinology (2026). PMID: 41884213 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup - [137]
Zhan J, Qiao D, Sun G et al.. “Geometric Decomposition of OCT Angiography in RVO: Unmasking Congestive Versus Compensatory Phenotypes and Deep Retina-Choroid Coupling.” Translational vision science & technology (2026). PMID: 41873904 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup - [138]
Jia J, Ning C, Wang Q et al.. “Stereotactic body radiotherapy plus lenvatinib and sintilimab with and without transarterial embolization for advanced hepatocellular carcinoma with portal vein tumor thrombus: a dual-center, propensity score-matched retrospective analysis.” Frontiers in immunology (2026). PMID: 41859127 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup, Special Populations - [139]
Iby J, Kreminger J, Stino H et al.. “Retinal Characteristics in Eyes With Retinal Vein Occlusion Using Widefield Swept-Source Optical Coherence Tomography Angiography.” Investigative ophthalmology & visual science (2026). PMID: 41854209 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup - [140]
Hofstetter RV, Marx CE, Kraaijpoel N et al.. “Reporting of D-dimer testing in venous thromboembolism diagnostic management studies: a scoping review.” Journal of thrombosis and haemostasis : JTH (2026). PMID: 41839295 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Diagnosis and Workup - [141]
Cun D, Li J, He P et al.. “Preoperative deep vein thrombosis in tibial plateau fractures: development and internal validation of an interpretable multivariable machine-learning diagnostic model.” Frontiers in medicine (2026). PMID: 41767515 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Diagnosis and Workup - [142]
Wu CL, Lu JW, Ho YJ et al.. “Deep Immunophenotyping Reveals a Resilient Tph-ABC Axis in Difficult-to-treat Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Case Report of JAK Inhibitor Failure Complicated by Herpes Zoster and Thrombosis.” In vivo (Athens, Greece) (2026). PMID: 41760293 ↗
L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Diagnosis and Workup - [143]
Ezeh UC, Tesema N, Hasnie S et al.. “Isolated external jugular thrombophlebitis secondary to acute pharyngitis: a case report and a review of the literature.” Italian journal of pediatrics (2024). PMID: 39285285 ↗
L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Differential Diagnosis - [144]
Knight GM, Desai KR. “Team-based approach to deep venous disease: A multidisciplinary approach to the multifaceted problem of thrombotic lower extremity venous disease.” Seminars in vascular surgery (2025). PMID: 41386912 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Differential Diagnosis - [145]
Phuyal D, Abbas F, Darras O et al.. “Evaluating the Safety of Immediate Lymphatic Reconstruction With Implant-Based Breast Reconstruction: Eight-Year Institutional Review.” Microsurgery (2025). PMID: 40956145 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Differential Diagnosis - [146]
Hassanzadeh S, Lakhman Y, Sadowski EA et al.. “Abdominopelvic complications of gynecologic malignancy: Essentials for radiologists.” European journal of radiology (2025). PMID: 40753689 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Differential Diagnosis - [147]
Hurst M, Shin L. “Charcot neuroarthropathy: Surgical and conservative treatment approaches.” Seminars in vascular surgery (2025). PMID: 40086925 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Differential Diagnosis - [148]
Wen X, Wu Z. “A retrospective study on the diagnostic value of ultrasonography for primary vascular leiomyosarcoma misdiagnosed as deep vein thrombosis.” Phlebology (2026). PMID: 40454675 ↗
L2bCOHORTCited in: Differential Diagnosis - [149]
Mitchell S, Rojas OG, Mathavan A et al.. “A 36-Year-Old Man With Hemoptysis and Fevers.” Chest (2026). PMID: 41672657 ↗
L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Differential Diagnosis - [150]
Lesage L, Barral PA, Chew A et al.. “Streptococcus constellatus-associated Lemierre syndrome complicated by pulmonary artery pseudoaneurysm in an 11-year-old girl.” Pediatric radiology (2026). PMID: 41511544 ↗
L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Differential Diagnosis - [151]
Ossuna M, Hamamoto Filho PT, Zanini MA. “Spontaneous thrombosis of drainage vein in cavernoma-associated developmental venous anomaly.” Neuroradiology (2025). PMID: 41065868 ↗
L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Differential Diagnosis - [152]
DSouza R, Kuruvilla Thomas S, Patharateeranart K et al.. “Pseudo hepatic vein thrombosis in a newborn with infracardiac total anomalous pulmonary venous connection.” Pediatric radiology (2024). PMID: 39485501 ↗
L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Differential Diagnosis - [153]
Godoy IRB, Cantarelli Rodrigues T, Alharfi M et al.. “Imaging in the diagnosis and characterization of tennis leg.” Skeletal radiology (2026). PMID: 41981329 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Differential Diagnosis - [154]
Embaby O, Bin Asmadi A, Binte Asmadi A et al.. “PATHOGENESIS OF ACUTE DIABETIC CHARCOT ARTHROPATHY IN THE FOOT AND ANKLE: A COMPREHENSIVE LITERATURE REVIEW.” Orthopedic reviews (2025). PMID: 40969400 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Differential Diagnosis - [155]
Jang E, Moon KY, Park SC et al.. “Primary leiomyosarcoma originating from the deep femoral vein initially presenting as chronic deep vein thrombosis: A case report and review of literature.” Medicine (2026). PMID: 41961719 ↗
L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Differential Diagnosis, Special Populations - [156]
Cheng L, Li L. “Tumor-like cortical venous thrombosis: Case report and literature review.” Medicine (2026). PMID: 41766497 ↗
L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Differential Diagnosis, Special Populations - [157]
Ak S, Thomas-Ogunniyi J, Takei H. “Intravascular Fasciitis Mimicking Deep Vein Thrombosis with Pulmonary Embolism in May-Thurner Syndrome: First Reported Case with Literature Review.” Annals of clinical and laboratory science (2025). PMID: 40962462 ↗
L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Differential Diagnosis - [158]
Teshima R, Saito-Sasaki N, Sawada Y. “Age as a key risk factor for deep vein thrombosis in patients with lower limb cellulitis.” Frontiers in medicine (2025). PMID: 40620438 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Differential Diagnosis - [159]
Cleary CM, Orosco E, Gallagher J et al.. “Continuation of anticoagulation through ambulatory phlebectomy does not impact postoperative bleeding risk.” Journal of vascular surgery. Venous and lymphatic disorders (2025). PMID: 39890080 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Differential Diagnosis - [160]
Awashra A, Salameh AA, Milhem F et al.. “Right atrial thrombus mimicking cardiac myxoma: surgical and postoperative management.” Journal of cardiothoracic surgery (2025). PMID: 41422031 ↗
L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Differential Diagnosis - [161]
Phillips I, Chen J, Milhem M et al.. “Vascular Leiomyosarcoma Masquerading as Chronic Deep Venous Thrombosis.” Clinical nuclear medicine (2026). PMID: 41380714 ↗
L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Differential Diagnosis - [162]
Romano A, Kaisari E, Belkoniene M et al.. “A case of paracentral acute middle maculopathy and retinal vein occlusion: idiopathic occlusive retinal vasculitis or incomplete Behçet's disease?” BMC ophthalmology (2025). PMID: 41088010 ↗
L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Differential Diagnosis - [163]
Bass R, Mitta P, Burgan C et al.. “Intravascular organizing thrombus in the forearm: a unique imaging presentation.” Skeletal radiology (2026). PMID: 41068310 ↗
L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Differential Diagnosis - [164]
Tse JD, Laller S, Kharait S. “Case Report: Steroids for diabetic myonecrosis in ESKD: an unconventional treatment with unexpected success.” Frontiers in nephrology (2025). PMID: 40963896 ↗
L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Differential Diagnosis - [165]
Al-Akhali ES, Alshoabi SA, Muslem HF et al.. “Multisystemic Tuberculosis Masquerading as Aggressive Cardiac Tumor Causing Budd-Chiari Syndrome Disseminated to the Brain Resulting in Death of a Six-Year-Old Boy.” Pathogens (Basel, Switzerland) (2025). PMID: 40872282 ↗
L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Differential Diagnosis - [166]
Okumura M, Sakuta K, Gomi T et al.. “Atypical intracerebral hemorrhage and internal jugular vein thrombosis in meningovascular neurosyphilis.” Journal of infection and chemotherapy : official journal of the Japan Society of Chemotherapy (2025). PMID: 40633667 ↗
L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Differential Diagnosis - [167]
Erb BM, Jeffrey JH, Reed DS et al.. “MRSA Cellulitis with Orbital and Retinal Abscesses Resulting in Lemierre Syndrome Following Eyebrow Piercing.” Ophthalmic plastic and reconstructive surgery (Unknown). PMID: 39718131 ↗
L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Differential Diagnosis - [168]
Reich T, Blum B, Zimmerli L. “[The slightly different neck pain].” Praxis (2026). PMID: 41784513 ↗
L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Differential Diagnosis - [169]
Gietzelt C, Wiedemann J, Lappas A et al.. “[Thrombosis of the superior ophthalmic vein-A case series and review of the literature].” Die Ophthalmologie (2024). PMID: 39266751 ↗
L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Differential Diagnosis - [170]
Duan H, Jiang C, Zhang B et al.. “Risk of Malignancies and Major Adverse Cardiovascular Events Related to JAK Inhibitors in Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Meta-Analysis.” Clinical pharmacology and therapeutics (2026). PMID: 41427516 ↗
L2aSR_OBSCited in: Special Populations - [171]
Chen K, Zhuo L, Liu Z et al.. “Presurgical molecular therapy for renal cell carcinoma with venous tumor thrombus: a systematic review and meta-analysis.” Frontiers in immunology (2025). PMID: 41394875 ↗
L2aSR_OBSCited in: Special Populations - [172]
Willems RAL, van Diepen AE, Dekker EN et al.. “Thromboembolic Events During Perioperative Therapy for Resectable and Borderline Resectable Pancreatic Cancer in the PREOPANC-2 Trial.” Journal of clinical oncology : official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (2026). PMID: 41610374 ↗
L1bRCTCited in: Special Populations - [173]
Mahé I, Chapelle C, Girard P et al.. “Predictors of clinically relevant bleeding during extended anticoagulation for cancer-associated venous thromboembolism (API-CAT): a post-hoc analysis of a randomised, non-inferiority trial.” The Lancet. Haematology (2026). PMID: 41365312 ↗
L1bRCTCited in: Special Populations - [174]
Mo N, Hu K, Zeng Z et al.. “Stereotactic body radiation therapy combined with cadonilimab and lenvatinib in the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma with Vp3 or Vp4 portal vein tumor thrombus: a prospective, multicenter, single-arm, phase II clinical trial.” Frontiers in immunology (2025). PMID: 41293180 ↗
L2bTRIAL_NONRANDOMCited in: Special Populations - [175]
Tong CX, Ma R, Meng T. “Left ovarian vein thrombosis suspected during cesarean section and confirmed postoperatively: a case report and review of the literature.” BMC pregnancy and childbirth (2026). PMID: 41688956 ↗
L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Special Populations - [176]
Yaqian Y, Chuanliang Z, Guowei Z et al.. “Efficacy of Z-shaped supine position in robot-assisted radical prostatectomy: study protocol for a randomized controlled trial.” Trials (2026). PMID: 41588472 ↗
L2bTRIAL_NONRANDOMCited in: Special Populations - [177]
Jian H, Cui X, Dou Y et al.. “Adoption of plasma D-dimer testing, color Doppler ultrasound, and enoxaparin sodium in predicting and preventing lower extremity deep vein thrombosis in high-risk parturients undergoing cesarean section.” Medicine (2025). PMID: 41398758 ↗
L1bRCTCited in: Special Populations - [178]
Federspiel JJ, Rodger MA, Hoffman MR et al.. “Postoperative venous thromboembolism following cesarean delivery: prevalence, pathophysiology, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention.” American journal of obstetrics and gynecology (2026). PMID: 41485833 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Special Populations - [179]
Ma J, Ke X, Zhu D. “The effect of anticoagulants on preventing venous thromboembolism in cancer patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis.” The National medical journal of India (2025). PMID: 41645951 ↗
L2aSR_OBSCited in: Special Populations - [180]
Wardhana DPW, Soetomo CT, Satyarsa ABS et al.. “Critical shift phase in deep vein thrombosis development after major sellar region tumor surgeries: a systematic review.” Annals of medicine (2025). PMID: 41392925 ↗
L2aSR_OBSCited in: Special Populations - [181]
Chiu YC, Chang WC, Chiu YC. “Early catheter-directed portal vein thrombolysis in myeloproliferative disorder-related diffuse mesenteric venous ischemia: A case report.” World journal of gastroenterology (2026). PMID: 41640868 ↗
L4CASE_REPORTCited in: Special Populations - [182]
Darby A, Bocchicchio M, Tabatabai R. “Cerebral Venous Thrombosis.” Emergency medicine clinics of North America (2026). PMID: 41260855 ↗
L5REVIEW_NARRATIVECited in: Special Populations - [183]
Guo B, Yerken S, Luo C et al.. “Liver resection versus transarterial chemoembolization plus PD-1 inhibitors and lenvatinib for hepatocellular carcinoma with portal vein tumour thrombus.” BJS open (2025). PMID: 41871372 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Special Populations - [184]
Wang L, Feng JK, Zhou B et al.. “Optimal duration of adjuvant targeted-immunotherapy in patients with initially unresectable hepatocellular carcinoma with portal vein tumor thrombus following successful conversion therapy.” The oncologist (2026). PMID: 41723827 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Special Populations - [185]
Xie R, Lu M, Wu J et al.. “Renal Pelvic Urothelial Carcinoma With Venous Tumor Thrombus: Prognosis and Reconsideration of TNM Staging.” Clinical genitourinary cancer (2026). PMID: 41680068 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Special Populations - [186]
Mohan N, Srivastava SK, Duphare C et al.. “Risk of retinal vein occlusions in patients taking systemic tyrosine kinase inhibitors.” Eye (London, England) (2026). PMID: 41652018 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Special Populations - [187]
Kurita D, Miyamoto S, Saito Y et al.. “Prevalence of Subclinical Internal Jugular Vein Thrombosis After Microvascular Head and Neck Reconstruction.” Microsurgery (2026). PMID: 41575013 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Special Populations - [188]
Zhou B, Ma Z, Wang L et al.. “Real-world outcomes of stereotactic body radiotherapy plus sintilimab and bevacizumab for hepatocellular carcinoma with portal vein tumor thrombus.” The oncologist (2026). PMID: 41495001 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Special Populations - [189]
Cui S, Wang D, Lyu S et al.. “Organ-specific role of neutrophil extracellular traps in shaping the postoperative thrombo-inflammatory niche in pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma: a multi-model machine learning and mechanistic study.” Frontiers in immunology (2025). PMID: 41445740 ↗
L5OTHERCited in: Special Populations - [190]
Yayac M, Konen T, Parvizi J. “The Use of Intermittent Pneumatic Compression in Orthopaedic Surgery: An Umbrella Review and Meta-Analysis.” JB & JS open access (2026). PMID: 42428035 ↗
L1aCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [191]
Potere N, Bertù L, Bucherini E et al.. “Incidence and predictors of recurrent venous thromboembolism after isolated distal deep vein thrombosis: a post-hoc analysis of the RIDTS trial.” Haematologica (2026). PMID: 42389836 ↗
L1bCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [192]
Ding T, Chen Y, Huang M et al.. “Meta-analysis of the effectiveness of ankle pump exercise combined with anticoagulant therapy for the prevention of post-operative lower extremity deep vein thrombosis.” Frontiers in neurology (2026). PMID: 42523846 ↗
L1aCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [193]
Qin L, Ye LJ, Liang P et al.. “Risk of venous thromboembolism with upadacitinib in rheumatoid arthritis: a meta-analysis.” Journal of thrombosis and thrombolysis (2026). PMID: 42509494 ↗
L1aCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [194]
Camporese G, Bernardi E, Bortoluzzi C et al.. “Mesoglycan for long-term secondary prevention in patients with superficial vein thrombosis (METRO): a multicentre randomised clinical trial in Italy.” EClinicalMedicine (2026). PMID: 42534458 ↗
L2bCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [195]
Deng X, Wan J, Huang X et al.. “Predictive model for preoperative deep vein thrombosis in distal femur fractures using inflammatory blood markers: a single-center retrospective cohort study.” PeerJ (2026). PMID: 42504248 ↗
L1bCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [196]
Tian Y, Qi M, Wang Q et al.. “Implementation of a nine-grid thinking model to optimize operating room nursing pathways for older adults undergoing total knee arthroplasty.” Journal of orthopaedic surgery (Hong Kong) (2026). PMID: 42375121 ↗
L1bCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [197]
Cortez E, Torres Luna E, Blancerte Ibarra M et al.. “Risk of venous thromboembolism with CDK4/6 inhibitor use in breast cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis.” The oncologist (2026). PMID: 42438148 ↗
L2aCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [198]
Endara-Mina J, Escudero CJ, Intriago C et al.. “Associated thromboembolic events to the post COVID syndrome: a systematic review and meta-analysis.” Frontiers in cardiovascular medicine (2026). PMID: 42368852 ↗
L2aCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [199]
Tummala S, Mittal MM, Sambandam SN et al.. “Differential complication risks in diabetic and non-diabetic geriatric patients following distal femur fracture surgery.” European journal of orthopaedic surgery & traumatology : orthopedie traumatologie (2026). PMID: 42550286 ↗
L2bCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [200]
Wang Y, Zhang B, Guo H et al.. “Operative Duration as an Independent Risk Factor for Lower-Extremity Deep Vein Thrombosis Following Shoulder Arthroscopy: A Prospective Cohort Study With Systematic Ultrasonographic Screening.” Orthopaedic journal of sports medicine (2026). PMID: 42453309 ↗
L2bCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [201]
Parmar T, Adio A, Handy A et al.. “Tranexamic acid in high-risk shoulder arthroplasty patients: safety across thromboembolic, cardiac, renal, and neurologic risk profiles.” Archives of orthopaedic and trauma surgery (2026). PMID: 42397605 ↗
L2bCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [202]
Xing Y, Cai W, Wang L et al.. “Risk Prediction Models for Deep Vein Thrombosis in Patients With Spontaneous Intracerebral Hemorrhage: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis.” Clinical and applied thrombosis/hemostasis : official journal of the International Academy of Clinical and Applied Thrombosis/Hemostasis (2026). PMID: 42383743 ↗
L2aCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [203]
Xie D, Cao G, Chen R et al.. “Early ambulation within 24 h after joint arthroplasty: a retrospective cohort study.” Frontiers in medicine (2026). PMID: 42568406 ↗
L3bCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [204]
Brindl N, Chandrakumaran K, Shah N et al.. “Deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism following cytoreductive surgery and HIPEC for PMP of appendiceal origin.” European journal of surgical oncology : the journal of the European Society of Surgical Oncology and the British Association of Surgical Oncology (2026). PMID: 42566936 ↗
L3bCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [205]
Park YU, Jun J, Sakong S et al.. “Challenging the Role of Routine Thromboprophylaxis in Foot and Ankle Surgery: A Comparative Study of Aspirin, Enoxaparin, and No Prophylaxis.” Clinics in orthopedic surgery (2026). PMID: 42558185 ↗
L4Cited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [206]
Puetz J, Salas J. “The Combined Effect of Obesity and Contraceptive Use on Pulmonary Embolism in Adolescent Females Residing in the United States.” Pediatric blood & cancer (2026). PMID: 42527845 ↗
L3bCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [207]
Azulay AA, Stein M, Tabo LY et al.. “High-velocity gunshot chest trauma: tailoring patient care through insights from a mass casualty experience.” European journal of trauma and emergency surgery : official publication of the European Trauma Society (2026). PMID: 42525108 ↗
L4Cited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [208]
Areti AS, Hafeez H, Sangineni PV et al.. “Elevated risk of wound and systemic complications in MRSA-colonized patients undergoing lower extremity orthopedic trauma surgery.” European journal of trauma and emergency surgery : official publication of the European Trauma Society (2026). PMID: 42507131 ↗
L3bCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [209]
Wu X, Wu X, Xiong J et al.. “Peripherally inserted central catheters versus central venous catheters in critically ill patients under standardized insertion protocols: a propensity score-matched cohort study.” BMC anesthesiology (2026). PMID: 42481958 ↗
L3bCited in: Epidemiology and Risk Factors - [210]
Wang L, Luo Z, Yang L et al.. “The Effectiveness and Safety of Rivaroxaban and Edoxaban in the Treatment of Lower Extremity Deep Vein Thrombosis.” Annals of vascular surgery (2024). PMID: 38960092 ↗
L3bCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors - [211]
Vesa ŞC, Chira R, Vlaicu SI et al.. “Systemic and Local Factors' Influence on the Topological Differences in Deep Vein Thrombosis.” Medicina (Kaunas, Lithuania) (2019). PMID: 31623212 ↗
L3bCited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors - [212]
Kraft C, Schuettfort G, Weil Y et al.. “Thrombosis of the inferior vena cava and malignant disease.” Thrombosis research (2014). PMID: 25081831 ↗
L4Cited in: Etiology and Triggering Factors - [213]
Yang Z, Qin J. “Epidemiological patterns and risk profiling of hospital acquired venous thromboembolism in a tertiary medical center in eastern China: a retrospective cohort study (2023-2024).” Frontiers in cardiovascular medicine (2026). PMID: 42459186 ↗
L3bCited in: Pathophysiology - [214]
Lytle JR, Miller AE, Martin DS et al.. “Jugular venous flow dynamics during acute weightlessness and partial gravity in parabolic flight.” Journal of applied physiology (Bethesda, Md. : 1985) (2026). PMID: 41770529 ↗
L4Cited in: Pathophysiology - [215]
Toprak Ş, Albayrak M. “Prolonged Immobility Due to Digital Exposure: A Rising Risk of E-Thrombosis in the Digital Age.” Clinical and applied thrombosis/hemostasis : official journal of the International Academy of Clinical and Applied Thrombosis/Hemostasis (2026). PMID: 41733924 ↗
L4Cited in: Pathophysiology - [216]
Shinozaki A, Yamamoto T, Kurata A. “Incidence and clinicopathological analysis of portal vein and inferior vena cava thrombosis in autopsy cases of autosomal dominant polycystic kidney disease.” Clinical and experimental nephrology (2026). PMID: 41649706 ↗
L4Cited in: Pathophysiology - [217]
Erdağ M, Aktaş K, Canleblebici M et al.. “Assessment of corneal endothelial morphology in retinal vein occlusion.” BMC ophthalmology (2026). PMID: 41622189 ↗
L3bCited in: Pathophysiology - [218]
Wu S, Jia W, Hua J et al.. “Systemic Exposure and Multicomponent Pharmacokinetics of Mailuoning Oral Liquid: Integrated Ultra-High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-High-Resolution Mass Spectrometry Profiling and Ultra-High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry Quantification.” Journal of separation science (2026). PMID: 42429384 ↗
L1bCited in: Pathophysiology - [219]
Pellerito M, Dowling AR, Luke CE et al.. “Monocyte depletion reduces late experimental post-thrombotic fibrotic injury in a stasis mouse model.” Thrombosis research (2026). PMID: 41610828 ↗
L3bCited in: Pathophysiology - [220]
Thi Nguyen KT, Tran LCD, Van Nguyen T. “Nurse-led education to improve deep vein thrombosis prevention knowledge after hip arthroplasty: a sequential controlled quasi-experimental study.” International journal of orthopaedic and trauma nursing (2026). PMID: 42570556 ↗
L2bCited in: Pathophysiology - [221]
Vojinovic T, Askling J, Antovic A. “The risk of venous thromboembolism in RA.” Rheumatology (Oxford, England) (2026). PMID: 42502986 ↗
L5Cited in: Pathophysiology - [222]
Moy BM, Barajas R, Savino C et al.. “Venous Thromboembolism Following Endoscopic Sleeve Gastroplasty.” Gastrointestinal endoscopy (2026). PMID: 42413834 ↗
L5Cited in: Pathophysiology - [223]
Yin J, Zhu E, Zheng X et al.. “Immune drivers of venous thrombosis: orchestrating initiation, formation, and resolution within the hypoxic microenvironment.” Frontiers in immunology (2026). PMID: 42358987 ↗
L5Cited in: Pathophysiology - [224]
Bhopal AS, Luo Y, Grover LM et al.. “Preclinical Models of Venous Thrombosis: A Critical Appraisal for Translational Research.” Arteriosclerosis, thrombosis, and vascular biology (2026). PMID: 42341088 ↗
L5Cited in: Pathophysiology - [225]
Balog Virág K, Csikós P, Raska A et al.. “Cell-dependent antithrombotic effect of tranexamic acid.” Frontiers in immunology (2026). PMID: 42273679 ↗
L5Cited in: Pathophysiology - [226]
Liang Y, Deng X, Chen M et al.. “Direct randomized evidence comparing ranibizumab and bevacizumab for macular edema secondary to retinal vein occlusion: a systematic review and meta-analysis.” BMC ophthalmology (2026). PMID: 42533334 ↗
L1aCited in: Diagnosis and Workup - [227]
Barco S, Wolf S, Sebastian T et al.. “Quality of life and functional recovery after venous stent placement for postthrombotic syndrome: insights from the ARIVA multinational randomized trial.” Research and practice in thrombosis and haemostasis (2026). PMID: 42568863 ↗
L1bCited in: Diagnosis and Workup - [228]
Zhang X, Geng W, Wei L et al.. “Risk factors and intervention strategies for lower extremity deep vein thrombosis after intravenous thrombolysis for acute ischemic stroke.” Frontiers in cardiovascular medicine (2026). PMID: 42483456 ↗
L2bCited in: Diagnosis and Workup - [229]
Liu Y, Zhang T, Zhang L et al.. “Effectiveness of comprehensive nursing care combined with an intermittent pneumatic compression device for preventing lower extremity venous thrombosis in long-term bedridden elderly patients: A prospective controlled study.” Medicine (2026). PMID: 42363552 ↗
L1bCited in: Diagnosis and Workup - [230]
Ding X, Wu H, Huang Q. “Diagnostic value of D-dimer in screening for deep vein thrombosis after total joint arthroplasty: a meta-analysis.” Frontiers in surgery (2026). PMID: 42523683 ↗
L2aCited in: Diagnosis and Workup - [231]
Yu J, Guo T, Hu W et al.. “Development and internal-external validation of a nomogram model for lower extremity deep vein thrombosis in patients after ruptured intracranial aneurysm surgery based on dynamic D-dimer trajectory.” International journal of medical informatics (2026). PMID: 42531668 ↗
L3bCited in: Diagnosis and Workup - [232]
Shi C, Peng C, Song J et al.. “Efficacy and safety of cytoreductive nephrectomy combined with thrombectomy in metastatic renal cell carcinoma with venous tumor thrombus: a real-world study based on inverse probability of treatment weighting.” World journal of urology (2026). PMID: 42472396 ↗
L3bCited in: Diagnosis and Workup - [233]
Yigit N, Arguner H, Ulutas F et al.. “Pulmonary artery involvement in Behçet's disease patients: real-life data on aneurysm and thrombosis.” Therapeutic advances in respiratory disease (2026). PMID: 42439589 ↗
L4Cited in: Diagnosis and Workup - [234]
Guan Y, Hong P, Xiao R et al.. “Perioperative safety and short-term survival outcomes of radical nephrectomy with thrombectomy in geriatric renal cell carcinoma patients with venous tumor thrombus.” Minerva urology and nephrology (2026). PMID: 42438981 ↗
L3bCited in: Diagnosis and Workup - [235]
Sun Z, Li J, Zhao P et al.. “Risk Factors for Early Deep Vein Thrombosis After Free-Flap Reconstruction for Head and Neck Cancer Despite Routine Heparin Prophylaxis.” Journal of oral and maxillofacial surgery : official journal of the American Association of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgeons (2026). PMID: 42425495 ↗
L3bCited in: Diagnosis and Workup - [236]
Wang N, Zhang Y, Zhang W et al.. “Association of Intramuscular Fat Infiltration With Incident Venous Thromboembolism: A Population-Based Cohort Study.” Journal of cachexia, sarcopenia and muscle (2026). PMID: 42422920 ↗
L3bCited in: Diagnosis and Workup - [237]
Ellison AM, Kuppermann N, Shihabuddin BS et al.. “PERC-Peds rule for bedside exclusion of pulmonary embolism without radiation in children in the USA (BEEPER): a multicentre, prospective, observational, diagnostic accuracy study.” The Lancet. Respiratory medicine (2026). PMID: 42398511 ↗
L3bCited in: Diagnosis and Workup - [238]
Huang J, Liu FC, Li L et al.. “Efficacy of combined modality conversion therapy for HCC with portal vein tumor thrombus: a retrospective cohort study.” Frontiers in immunology (2026). PMID: 42396444 ↗
L3bCited in: Diagnosis and Workup - [239]
Zhang S, Zhou J, Han Y et al.. “A Web-Based Machine Learning Calculator for Predicting Preoperative Deep Vein Thrombosis in Elderly Hip Fractures Patients.” Clinical interventions in aging (2026). PMID: 42376184 ↗
L3bCited in: Diagnosis and Workup - [240]
Akimoto K, Ikeda Y, Nakajima F et al.. “Incidence of lower extremity deep vein thrombosis following arthroscopic rotator cuff repair.” Journal of shoulder and elbow surgery (2026). PMID: 42342102 ↗
L4Cited in: Diagnosis and Workup - [241]
Zhu K, Li H, Zhang H et al.. “Multimodal Deep Learning for Predicting Deep Vein Thrombosis Risk After Total Knee Arthroplasty: A Clinical Study.” Orthopaedic surgery (2026). PMID: 42304630 ↗
L3bCited in: Diagnosis and Workup - [242]
Meng Y, Zhang C, Fan Z et al.. “Risk factors for preoperative isolated calf muscle vein thrombosis in elderly patients with hip fracture and development of a predictive nomogram: a retrospective study.” BMC musculoskeletal disorders (2026). PMID: 42437913 ↗
L2bCited in: Diagnosis and Workup - [243]
Dahlan K, Oganov A, Fazio N et al.. “Timing of anti-VEGF therapy and postoperative macular edema after cataract surgery in eyes with retinal vein occlusion: a retrospective cohort study.” BMC ophthalmology (2026). PMID: 42380785 ↗
L4Cited in: Diagnosis and Workup - [244]
Wang X, Chen X, Mao J et al.. “A machine learning-based risk prediction model for Hospitalized patients with deep vein thrombosis.” PeerJ (2026). PMID: 42544207 ↗
L3bCited in: Diagnosis and Workup - [245]
Cohen C, Klaassen I, Zhang S et al.. “An International Survey on the Assessment of Screening and Treatment of Thrombosis Complications in Pediatrics (ASTRO-Kids): communication from the ISTH SSC Subcommittee on Pediatric and Neonatal Thrombosis and Hemostasis.” Journal of thrombosis and haemostasis : JTH (2026). PMID: 41833696 ↗
L1cCited in: Special Populations - [246]
Al-Rubaish S, Awad A, Mehros W et al.. “Efficacy and safety of apixaban versus enoxaparin in gynecologic oncology surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis.” International journal of gynecological cancer : official journal of the International Gynecological Cancer Society (2026). PMID: 42284982 ↗
L1aCited in: Special Populations - [247]
de Sousa Bernardes L, de Oliveira Woehl L, de Oliveira JG et al.. “Assessment of venous thromboembolism in adult-type diffuse gliomas at a quaternary neuro-oncology center: a retrospective cross-sectional study and systematic review.” Neurosurgical review (2026). PMID: 42032381 ↗
L2aCited in: Special Populations - [248]
Liu W, Zhang K, Chen S et al.. “Hepatic arterial infusion chemotherapy plus tyrosine kinase inhibitors with or without PD-1 inhibitors for advanced hepatocellular carcinoma with VP4 portal vein tumor thrombosis: a retrospective cohort study.” Frontiers in immunology (2026). PMID: 42245629 ↗
L4Cited in: Special Populations - [249]
Suzuki K, Gunji T, Nagao R et al.. “Geriatric nutritional risk index for the prediction of venous thrombotic events in multiple myeloma.” International journal of clinical oncology (2026). PMID: 42262688 ↗
L3bCited in: Special Populations - [250]
Pham KT, Dagi AF, Ly CL. “National trends and safety of prophylactic lymphovenous bypass during axillary lymph node dissection: A decade-long analysis of 61,819 patients through the NSQIP database.” Journal of plastic, reconstructive & aesthetic surgery : JPRAS (2026). PMID: 42161165 ↗
L3bCited in: Special Populations - [251]
Wang Y, Lv D, Chen X et al.. “Real-World Evidence on Preoperative Targeted Therapy for Renal Cell Carcinoma With Inferior Vena Cava Tumor Thrombus.” Clinical genitourinary cancer (2026). PMID: 41963238 ↗
L4Cited in: Special Populations - [252]
Indorewala Y, Prashar S, Lee P et al.. “Evaluating maternal mortality, risk factors, and emergency c-section timing in polytrauma pregnant patients.” The American journal of emergency medicine (2026). PMID: 41932264 ↗
L3bCited in: Special Populations - [253]
Borad A, Andersen M, Guffey D et al.. “The Impact of Anticoagulation in Patients With Isolated Cancer-Associated Splanchnic Vein Thrombosis: A Dual-Center Cohort Study.” American journal of hematology (2026). PMID: 41891315 ↗
L3bCited in: Special Populations - [254]
Nahshon C, Fahoum L, Schmidt M et al.. “Is pharmacologic thromboprophylaxis needed in robotic-assisted hysterectomy? A big data study.” Journal of robotic surgery (2026). PMID: 41803413 ↗
L3bCited in: Special Populations - [255]
Jeong H, Yue SC, Kaelber DC et al.. “Risks of Retinal Vascular Occlusions with the Systemic Use of Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors.” Ophthalmology. Retina (2026). PMID: 41791651 ↗
L4Cited in: Special Populations