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Pediatrics›Condition·Updated Jul 11, 2026·v1

Bronchiolitis

Bronchiolitis is a common viral lower respiratory tract infection in infants <2 years, managed with supportive care. Avoid unnecessary tests and medications. High-flow nasal cannula and nirsevimab are key advances.

High Evidence284 references·2,206 words·9 min read·v1
bronchiolitisRSVpediatricsviral infectionlower respiratory tract infection

Quick Reference

RxDrug of choiceSupportive care (oxygen, hydration, nasal suctioning), no specific drug of choice.
AltAlternativesHigh-flow nasal cannula (HFNC) for respiratory support; nirsevimab for prevention; ziresovir (experimental) for treatment.
⊘AvoidRoutine bronchodilators, corticosteroids, hypertonic saline, antibiotics, chest physiotherapy, caffeine citrate for apnea.
DxTest of choiceClinical diagnosis.
ScKey scoreRDAI (Respiratory Distress Assessment Instrument) or Wang bronchiolitis clinical score.
→When to referPersistent hypoxia despite oxygen, apnea, severe respiratory distress, inability to feed, comorbidities.
Supportive care is the mainstay; avoid unnecessary interventions; nirsevimab prevents severe disease.
Bronchiolitis is an acute viral lower respiratory tract infection in infants <2 years, primarily caused by respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). It is the leading cause of hospitalization in infants, characterized by airway inflammation and mucus plugging. Management is supportive, with emphasis on oxygen therapy and respiratory support. Recently, nirsevimab has revolutionized prevention, offering season-long protection with a single dose.

Overview and Recommendations

Background

  • •Bronchiolitis is an acute viral lower respiratory tract infection in infants <2 years, characterized by inflammation, mucus plugging, and bronchiolar obstruction, most commonly caused by (RSV). It is the leading cause of hospitalization in US infants <1 year, accounting for over 149,000 admissions annually and $543 million in direct costs, though the majority of cases (87%) are managed in primary care.
  • •The pathophysiology centers on viral infection of the airway epithelium, leading to epithelial necrosis, neutrophil infiltration, and sloughed debris that obstruct small airways. The host immune response, particularly a >200-fold elevation of IL-6, drives the most severe outcomes, including rapid deterioration and brain edema in fatal cases.
  • •Risk factors for severe disease include age <2 months, preterm birth, congenital heart disease, chronic lung disease, immunodeficiency, siblings aged 0-3 years, low income, and neighborhood deprivation. The strongest predictor is the presence of any comorbidity (OR 5.33).
  • •The clinical course follows a catarrhal phase (rhinorrhea, cough, low-grade fever) over 1-2 days, then a respiratory distress phase (tachypnea, wheezing, hypoxemia) peaking at days 3-5, followed by gradual recovery. Apnea may be the sole presenting sign in infants <2 months.
  • •Bronchiolitis is defined as the first episode of wheezing in an infant <2 years; recurrent wheezing episodes should be labeled as asthma or recurrent viral wheeze, not bronchiolitis, to avoid unnecessary bronchodilator and corticosteroid use.

Evaluation

  • •Suspect bronchiolitis in any infant <2 years presenting with acute onset of coryza (rhinorrhea, nasal congestion, cough) followed by lower respiratory signs: tachypnea, wheezing, crackles, and increased work of breathing.
  • •Ask about the onset and progression of symptoms, fever, feeding intolerance (decreased oral intake, fewer wet diapers), apnea (especially in infants <2 months), and exposure to sick contacts or tobacco smoke.
  • •Examine for vital signs: respiratory rate >50-60/min, heart rate >160/min, SpO₂ <90% (or <87% in ED predicts ICU admission). Assess work of breathing, subcostal, intercostal, suprasternal retractions, nasal flaring, head bobbing, grunting. Auscultate for diffuse crackles and expiratory wheezes; in severe disease, breath sounds may be diminished due to air trapping.
  • •The gold-standard diagnostic test is clinical diagnosis: no laboratory or imaging test is required for confirmation in typical cases. The diagnosis rests on the presence of acute-onset lower respiratory illness with coryzal prodrome, tachypnea, and crackles/wheeze in a child ≤23 months.
  • •Do not routinely order chest radiography, it does not change management and increases antibiotic use. Reserve CXR for atypical presentations (suspected foreign body, pneumonia, atelectasis) or severe disease requiring ICU admission.
  • •Do not routinely obtain viral testing (e.g., RSV PCR), it does not alter management or outcomes. It may be used for cohorting hospitalized infants to prevent nosocomial spread, but this is a public health decision.
  • •Do not routinely obtain complete blood count, blood cultures, or inflammatory markers, they have no clinical utility in typical bronchiolitis. Procalcitonin and CRP may have some benefit in predicting bacterial co-infection in ICU patients, but evidence is very low.
  • •Consider urinalysis and urine culture only if there is clinical suspicion for UTI; the prevalence of concomitant UTI is only 3.1%, and drops to 0.8% when pyuria or nitrites are present, below recommended testing thresholds.
  • •Consider differential diagnoses: asthma (recurrent wheezing, older age, family atopy), (sudden choking, unilateral wheeze), (focal crackles, high fever, consolidation on CXR), (paroxysmal cough with whoop, post-tussive emesis, apnea, no fever), congenital heart disease (cyanosis, murmur, hepatomegaly).
  • •Use a severity score to objectify assessment: the (RDAI) (0-17) incorporates retractions, wheezing, and respiratory rate; the (0-12) includes respiratory rate, retractions, accessory muscles, and auscultation. Both have good interrater reliability but considerable measurement error (RDAI limits of agreement ±3.8 points), use the trend over 4-6 hours, not a single value.
  • •Risk stratify for severe outcomes: predictors of ICU admission include age <2 months, heart rate >160/min, SpO₂ <87%, previous ICU admission, and time of onset ≤2 days. The shows the highest discrimination for in-hospital mortality (AUROC 0.83) in resource-limited settings.
  • •In infants with comorbidities (prematurity, congenital heart disease, chronic lung disease, immunodeficiency), maintain a lower threshold for admission and escalation, odds of critical care admission or death after ED discharge are 5-fold higher.

Management

  • •Initiate supportive care as the cornerstone: oxygen therapy to maintain SpO₂ ≥90% (low-flow nasal cannula ≤2 L/min first-line), nasal suctioning (enhanced suctioning may reduce additional resource use), and hydration (enteral if safe, otherwise IV isotonic fluids).
  • •For mild disease (no hypoxia, mild respiratory distress, adequate feeding), manage at home with parental education on signs of deterioration and expected duration of cough (up to 3 weeks). Do not prescribe bronchodilators, corticosteroids, or antibiotics.
  • •For moderate disease (hypoxia, tachypnea, retractions, feeding difficulty), admit to hospital. Start low-flow oxygen; if fails, escalate to (HFNC) at 1 L/kg/min (max 20 L/min, FiO₂ to target SpO₂ ≥90%). HFNC reduces treatment failure compared to standard oxygen (RR 0.50, 95% CI 0.40-0.62) and lowers escalation to mechanical ventilation.
  • •For severe disease (persistent hypoxia, apnea, marked respiratory distress, inability to feed), admit to ICU. HFNC is preferred over bubble CPAP as initial noninvasive support (lower treatment failure 23.7% vs 42.4%; RR 0.56). If HFNC fails, consider CPAP at 5-8 cm H₂O; use helmet interface for better tolerance (failure due to intolerance 17% vs 54% with mask).
  • •Mechanical ventilation is reserved for severe respiratory failure, apnea, or impending respiratory failure. Use lung-protective strategies with PEEP 5-8 cm H₂O.
  • •Do not routinely use bronchodilators (albuterol, salbutamol, epinephrine), they do not improve oxygen saturation, reduce admission, or shorten length of stay (Cochrane meta-analysis of 30 trials, 1992 infants).
  • •Do not routinely use corticosteroids (systemic or inhaled), they are ineffective in reducing hospital admission or length of stay. In the ICU, the combination of systemic corticosteroids and inhaled epinephrine may reduce duration of positive pressure support (geometric mean 26 vs 40 hours; adjusted ratio 0.66), but this is not recommended outside intensive care.
  • •Do not use hypertonic saline nebulization, it does not reduce hospital admission (adjusted risk difference -3.2%) and causes more cough. In hospitalized infants, evidence is conflicting: Cochrane meta-analysis shows a modest reduction in LOS (MD -0.41 days), but reanalysis adjusting for heterogeneity found no effect.
  • •Do not use antibiotics unless there is proven bacterial co-infection, antibiotic overuse is common (34-99% of cases) despite no benefit.
  • •Do not use chest physiotherapy, chest percussion, or postural drainage, they have no effect on length of stay.
  • •Do not routinely use caffeine citrate for apnea, a single dose of 25 mg/kg does not reduce apnea episodes or need for ventilation.
  • •Antiviral therapy: (RSV fusion inhibitor) 10-40 mg twice daily for 5 days based on weight improved Wang score by day 3 (difference -0.8 points, p=0.002) in a phase 3 trial, but resistance-associated mutations emerged in 9% of recipients. It is not yet standard of care.
  • •Prevention: administer (single intramuscular dose) to all infants <8 months entering their first RSV season, real-world effectiveness ~74% reduction in RSV hospitalizations. For high-risk infants (e.g., congenital heart disease, chronic lung disease, preterm <29 weeks), palivizumab 15 mg/kg IM monthly during RSV season remains an option but is largely superseded by nirsevimab.
  • •Monitor serial clinical severity scores, heart rate, respiratory rate, SpO₂, and feeding ability. Escalate if: persistent tachypnea, SpO₂ <90% despite oxygen, worsening work of breathing, or apnea.
  • •Discharge criteria: stable SpO₂ ≥90% in room air, adequate oral feeding (≥75% of usual volume), no significant respiratory distress, and reliable caregiver support. Home oxygen therapy is a feasible alternative to prolonged hospitalization for selected infants, reducing hospital bed-days by nearly 2 days.
  • •Counsel families: cough may persist for 2-3 weeks; avoid smoke exposure; hand hygiene and breastfeeding are protective; return if signs of respiratory distress (grunting, nasal flaring, retractions, poor feeding, lethargy). Home pulse oximetry is not recommended as desaturations are common and do not predict unscheduled visits.

Board Review — High Yield

  • •First episode of wheezing in infant <2 years, key definition: recurrent wheezing is not bronchiolitis.
  • •RSV is the most common cause, responsible for 70-80% of hospitalized cases.
  • •Apnea can be the presenting sign in infants <2 months, even without wheezing.
  • •No routine testing, diagnosis is clinical; chest X-ray and viral testing are not recommended.
  • •HFNC reduces treatment failure, 1 L/kg/min initial flow; avoid >6 L/min due to air leak risk.
  • •Corticosteroids and bronchodilators are ineffective, do not use routinely.
  • •Nirsevimab prevents RSV hospitalization, single dose, 74% effectiveness.
  • •Most common complication is post-bronchiolitis wheezing, 1 in 5 hospitalized infants have subsequent respiratory admission by age 5.
  • •RDAI score, most validated severity score; use trend not single value.
  • •Maternal RSV vaccination emerging but not yet standard.

Deep Dive — Evidence Details

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